Travel Reference
In-Depth Information
need to provide assurances for items such as investment incentives and tax
holidays, which will stimulate the participation of private companies in the
tourism sector. Governments in Africa have permitted an increased role of
the private sector in the development of tourism, recognising the role of the
market in the efficient use of resources (Dieke, 1995). However, structural
adjustment lending programmes have been heavily criticised for causing
hardships for citizens on a number of fronts. In a study on structural adjust-
ment programmes and tourism in Ghana from 1983-1999, Kondadu-
Agyemang (2000, 2001) noted the negative impacts were the retrenchment
of over 300,000 workers, currency devaluation, increasing socio-economic
and spatial disparities, rising mortality rates and a decline in nutrition.
However Kondadu-Agyemang (2000, 2001) notes that the structural adjust-
ment programme's efforts in transforming the economy may have helped
transform the tourism industry from obscurity to a top foreign exchange
earner for Ghana, but suggests that adjustments should be made to structural
adjustment policies (SAP) to render them more humane.
Alternative Development
Since the early postwar period, mainstream development strategies cen-
tred on economic growth and top-down diffusion of growth impulses
(Brohman, 1996b). The alternative development paradigm is a pragmatic,
broad-based approach which arose out of the criticisms of these models.
Schmidt (1989) argues that there are inherent contradictions in social theo-
ries of economic change which were developed by urbanised thinkers, and
which were based on development concepts from industrialised countries.
Edwards (1989) writes on the irrelevance of development studies, arguing for
more practical research which appreciates indigenous knowledge systems
and popular participation. The various alternatives to the Eurocentric, meta-
narrative, economic models are centred on people and the environment and
the planning focus is often from the bottom up.
The dissatisfaction with mainstream development models became wide-
spread in the development community in the early 1970s and many interna-
tional and bilateral aid agencies began searching for alternative, more
people-oriented approaches (Brohman, 1996b). The basic needs approach
begins with providing opportunities for full physical, mental and social
development of the human personality (Streeten, 1977; see Maslow, 1970, for
hierarchy of needs). Direct attacks are made on problems such as infant mor-
tality, malnutrition, disease, literacy and sanitation (Streeten, 1977).
Meanwhile, indigenous theories of development are promoted as they incor-
porate local conditions and knowledge systems (Chipeta, 1981; Schafer,
1989). There is a call for increased local involvement in the development
process (Alamgir, 1988; Bock, 1989; Haq, 1988; Pretty, 1994; Telfer, 2000a,
Search WWH ::
Custom Search