Conclusion: Tourism and Development - Tourism and Development: Concepts and Issues - page 454

significant amounts of financial aid from the International Monetary Fund
which, in the past, would have typically been directed at developing coun-
tries. The pendulum continues to swing between state intervention and the
free market. The impact of the 9/11 terrorist attacks in the United States
continues to have implications for the tourism industry and tourists continue
to be targets. The Arab Spring, which began in December 2010, spread to
numerous countries in the region and led to regime changes but also an uncer-
tain future in what Connolly (2013) refers to as 'unpredicted outcomes'.
Successive reports by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
illustrate the growing recognition of the dangers faced by the planet and
humanity, whilst the tourism industry in particular is beginning to acknowl-
edge its contribution to greenhouse gas emissions and the potential impacts.
Poverty reduction has come to the forefront of development thought with
the first goal of the United Nations (UN) Millennium Development Goals
being to 'eradicate extreme poverty and hunger'. A key point to raise here is
that the UN Millennium Development Goals have a target date of 2015 and
there is a need to look beyond this date. Collier (2007) argues that by 2015,
the way of thinking that formulated the UN Millennium Development Goals
will be outdated. Consequently, the UN has set up a task team to establish
the post-2015 development agenda, whilst, in the specific context of tourism,
African experts met in March 2014 to develop a tourism strategy for the
African Union Agenda 2063, a 50-year development plan for Africa. The
following was a list of the questions the experts were addressing in their
meeting that had the theme 'Tourism a Transformative Force for Africa':

• What goals should African tourism set itself in order to contribute to

higher levels of incomes, employment and longevity ?

• How can the tourism sector contribute to the transformation of African

economies, including the small island states, as envisaged in the people's
aspiration for prosperity ?

• How can tourism contribute to the envisaged increase in the intra-Africa

trade in goods and services ?

• What goals and targets should tourism 2063 set itself to contribute to a

peaceful and secure Africa ?

• How can tourism 2063 promote Africa's cultural identity, values and

ethics ? (eTN, 2014)

Three new paradigms have been added to Table 2.2 'Evolution of
Development Theory' from the first edition of this topic, namely: post
development, human development and global development (see Chapter 2).
Tou r ism has mirrored the changes in development thought with the rise of
pro-poor tourism strategies (Chapter 4) and human rights in tourism
(Chapter 13), both evident in the human development paradigm. The recog-
nition of the impact of climate change in tourism (Chapter 11) is central to