Tourism, Development and International Studies - Tourism and Development: Concepts and Issues - page 422

(Anderson et al. , 2013). The spatial component includes location, spatial inter-
actions with flows of people, resources and ideas and the final component is
spatial organisation. With the liberalisation of air transportation services,
there has been a rise in the number of low-cost carriers and in Europe second-
ary airports are being opened up by companies such as Ryanair, generating
additional tourism-related opportunities (Fageda & Flores-Fillol, 2012).
Political borders can also be a tourist attraction, such as the border between
North and South Korea, but they can also be barriers (Timothy, 2001). In inter-
national studies, the dispute over territory between Israel and Palestine has
significant implications for tourism. Regions can be classified as formal or
uniform regions, where a selected physical or human characteristic is present
throughout, or functional regions, where an area has an activity with a net-
work, focal point or node (Anderson et al. , 2013; see Chapter 5). The creation
of parkland with safari tours to the exclusion of indigenous communities,
such as the Maasai, has generated debate. International studies examines
formal regions such as Latin America with their established language, culture,
history and economy and functional regions with global cities such as Shang-
hai, Mumbai Mexico City, and Los Angeles as nodes representing opportuni-
ties for tourism (Anderson et al. , 2013). One cannot understand tourism in
Shanghai, for example, without an understanding of the geography of the
area and combining it with knowledge from the other disciplines. However,
one must be cautious about generalisations when discussing regions. The final
aspect of geography relates to the environment and how humans modify and
react to the natural environment (Anderson et al. , 2013). One only has to look
at the changes that have evolved with respect to the area of sustainability.
Lipman (2013) suggests that the global policy agenda has shifted from planet
through people and climate over the last decade and, since the Rio

20
Summit in 2012, it has come down on the green growth path. The tourism
industry sustainability agenda has gone from ecotourism and conservation
though responsible, pro-poor and fair trade tourism. The industry greening
programmes and supply chain extension programmes have moved from
awareness to industry certification and global indicators for communities and
over the last decade there has been a shift to climate and carbon reduction
(Lipman, 2013). As noted in Chapter 11, climate change is becoming recog-
nised as an issue that is going to have major impacts on the tourism develop-
ment process.

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Anthropology
Anderson et al. (2013) indicate there are at least four dimensions that
anthropology offers to international studies. The first is the importance of
culture in explaining human actions at every level of society from interper-
sonal to international. Second, anthropology urges a more sophisticated
approach to cultural boundaries and writes about cultures in the context of