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extraction through international trade, whereas the overall mass of material
consumption generally increases.
This is not to suggest that MRE efficient technologies should not be
promoted. Rather it depends on their context and the overall nature of con-
sumption, not only within tourism but the transfer of consumption between
tourism and other aspects of what individuals consume within specific
socio-technical systems. As Polimeni et al. (2009: 169), note, 'If individual
energy consumption behaviours are significantly altered to reduce consump-
tion and this behaviour is unwavering, then energy efficient technologies can
further reduce energy consumption.' This is particularly important because
of the limited capacities for changing individual behaviours via social mar-
keting in the required time period to avoid disastrous climate change (Hall,
2013, 2014). As Vermeulen (2009: 25) argues, the focus of responses to over-
consumption needs to be on 'structures as a whole, rather than their indi-
vidual actions. Short-term solutions may rely on improving efficiencies
within existing modes of production and consumption (reformist changes).
In the longer term, however, what is needed is a rethink of how and what
we consume (transformist changes)' (see Chapter 12).
The benefits of tourism to society are, thus, highly complex and not
self-evident. Tourism may, particularly in small countries with high arrival
numbers, also increase prices for basic staples and, thus, have negative con-
sequences for the poorest part of the population (Gössling, 2003). Such pres-
sures are only expected to be exacerbated by climate change (World Bank,
2012). Therefore, we would strongly agree with Schilcher (2007) who argues
that in order for tourism to bring benefits to the poorer parts of society, the
focus on growth of tourism per se has to be replaced with a perspective on
equity and developing an understanding of tourism within the broader con-
text of economic and social development objectives.
Climate change adds a new dimension to this needed transformation
with respect to tourism's role in development. Accumulating evidence indi-
cates that climate change, particularly high emission scenarios, would have
profound implications that could fundamentally transform aspects of the
global tourism sector and the destinations that rely on tourism economies
(Gössling et al. , 2013; Scott et al. , 2012a, 2012b). Climate change is already
beginning to affect decision-making in the tourism sector (e.g. investors,
insurance companies, tourism enterprises, governments, tourism organisa-
tions and tourists), and it will be a pivotal issue affecting tourism develop-
ment in the decades ahead (Gössling & Hall, 2006a; Scott et al. , 2008, 2012b).
Addressing the large information gaps regarding the climate change vulner-
ability of the tourism sector in virtually all developing nations and better
informing decision-makers of the attendant risks must be a core component
of any future strategy for tourism to contribute to poverty alleviation and
the United Nations MDGs.
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