Travel Reference
In-Depth Information
Table 11.5 Energy characteristics of tourism in case study islands, 2005
Country
Average
weighted
emissions per
tourist, air
travel (return
fl ight; kg CO 2 ) a
International
tourist
arrivals
(2005)*
Total
emissions,
air travel
(1000t CO 2 )
Emissions per tourist,
main market (return
fl ight; kg CO 2 )
Percentage: share of
total arrivals a
Anguilla
750
62,084
47
672 (USA; 67%)
Bonaire
1302
62,550
81
803 (USA; 41%)
Comoros
1734
**17,603
31
1929 (France; 54%)
Cuba
1344
2,319,334
3,117
556 (Canada; 26%)
Jamaica
635
1,478,663
939
635 (USA: 72%)
Madagascar
1829
277,422
507
2159 (France; 52%)
Saint Lucia
1076
317,939
342
811(USA; 35%)
Samoa
658
101,807
67
824 (New Zealand; 36%)
Seychelles
1873
128,654
241
1935 (France; 21%)
Sri Lanka
1327
549,309
729
606 (India; 21%)
Source: *UNWTO 2007b, 2007c; **2004.
Notes: a Calculation of emissions is based on the main national markets only, using a main airport
to main airport approach (in the USA: New York; Canada: Toronto; Australia: Brisbane).
tourist from these main markets may vary considerably, with emissions of
556 kg CO 2 /tourist in Cuba and up to 2159 kg CO 2 /tourist in Madagascar.
This is of importance, as in the long term climate policy is more likely to
have an impact on countries with a heavy dependence on emission-intense
markets that have strong climate policies.
There is no evidence to suggest that climate policies or international avia-
tion industry initiatives (e.g. International Civil Aviation Organization,
2009), as currently proposed, would have a meaningful impact on tourism
arrivals in developing nations by 2020 or even 2030 given current growth
forecasts (Gössling et al. , 2013). This situation may change under stronger cli-
mate policies, if they emerge, but increases in oil prices may have a far greater
impact on arrival numbers in the short-term future. It has been suggested
that restructuring markets to short-haul and domestic tourism would be a
strategy to reduce the vulnerability of tourism development to growing
travel costs. However, domestic tourism cannot always easily substitute for
international tourism, at least in the short term (Zapata et al. , 2011). At a
national level, domestic tourism is only an economic substitute if domestic
tourism spending can be encouraged, or if the income retained by domestic
tourists not travelling internationally is greater than the income reduction
resulting from fewer international visitors. Furthermore, what is attractive
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