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As in the case of general socio-cultural changes, empowerment of one
gender is also a double-sided issue. Women's empowerment is one of the most
desirable issues in Western concepts of development. It is often argued that
post-war industrialisation based on capitalism triggered the marginalisation
of women today (Staudt, 1998). In many societies, researchers argue that
women are subjects of inferior standing in society, a state perpetuated by the
practice of religion, systems of education, socio-economic standing and polit-
ical ideology (Andrews, 1988). Dixon (cited in Andrews, 1988: 126) defined
women's inferiority in society as being based on 'the degree of women's
access to and control over material resources (food, land, income, and other
forms of wealth) and social resources (knowledge, power, and prestige)
within the family, in the community, and in the society at large'. This may
be true in many nations today; however, there still remains a question as to
whether or not this condition was aggravated or reinforced by introducing
Western ideology of economic development and modernisation. In tourism,
in which many so-called developing nations are involved, there are concerns
about changes in social structure and social fabric due to tourism develop-
ment. Women in economically developing nations such as Fiji and Indonesia,
who were mentioned earlier in this chapter, and women in socialist or com-
munist societies tend to have equal or more advantageous social status in
comparison with men. Yet, the introduction of industrialisation and tourism
development has transformed the value of jobs and created a preference for
female workers in the tourism industry, which has inevitably affected wom-
en's socio-economic status. On the one hand, women regained access to
material resources (e.g. Aboriginal women's land ownership in Australia) and
social resources (e.g. access to higher education) through tourism-related
jobs. On the other hand, women's income from such jobs can surpass men's
income from agriculture and the fishing industry. Women who leave home
to partake in tourism-related jobs can cause radical changes in the traditional
social structure and family values.
Social changes such as those in gender empowerment, family structure
and traditional values are clearly inevitable, particularly if developing nations
are to copy Euro-American societies' lifestyles, value systems and family
structures. It is commonly held that the relationship between economic
development and associated social modernisation is inarguably positive.
Nevertheless, the meaning of social and cultural changes induced by so-called
'modernisation' is continuing to be questioned. Some thinkers question
whether or not it is worth witnessing unexpected, drastic changes in socio-
cultural values and practices in order to promote socio-economic develop-
ment. Arabic traditionalists are calling for a departure from an urban
modernisation paradigm and resultant changes in family values, and advo-
cate for a revival of Islamic values, including religiously-based dress codes
(Kamal & Fisher, 1988). In spite of the positive aspects of the alternative
development paradigm (including sustainable development), as well as the
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