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accommodations, farmer's markets and various workshops for tourists,
women gain financial independence from husbands and family members,
increase their business and social networks and find a space for socialisation
and gain a support system (Hashimoto & Telfer, 2011). While there are chal-
lenges with these projects the women have achieved a greater degree of
empowerment.
While some argue that tourism-related jobs for women often involve
pitiful working conditions, women who find jobs as cleaners and maids
in hotels, as craft-producers, or as inn-keepers can still retain their dignity and
economic autonomy. Sex-tourism can be viewed by some agencies as another
form of job-creation for unskilled women and girls, and sometimes for men
(see Hall, 1994a). Nevertheless, it is not included as a form of empowerment
due to the high-risk nature of this work and the devastating consequences of
HIV/AIDS. Prostitution, which often develops in tourism destinations, will
be addressed in the next section.
The above positive socio-cultural changes associated with tourism have
the ability to add to the overall quality of life and well-being of those living
in a destination. An infusion of tourists into a destination can generate eco-
nomic benefits for those involved as well as promote social and political
stability. It can also facilitate the protection of heritage and cultural tradi-
tions. Additional government revenue from tourism may be used further to
benefit the wider population in terms of social programmes and recently
pro-poor tourism has the potential to generate benefits for those in extreme
need (see Chapter 4). It is difficult, however, to know to what extent these
factors can contribute to overriding development indicators. Many of the
positive changes outlined above can also be argued to be negative, as will be
illustrated below.
Negative socio-cultural impacts of tourism development
Arguments surrounding the negative socio-cultural impact of tourism
development often focus on changes in traditions, customs, festivals, values,
language and family structure. Nevertheless, there is little disagreement
raised about the modernisation (or Westernisation) of accommodation facili-
ties and transportation or criticism raised about the modernisation of ani-
mate culture or reflections on daily life in host communities.
The main areas of discussion are often related to cultural imperialism
and assimilation of a 'weaker' culture. As the majority of tourists come from
economically developed nations, they tend to expect familiar amenities and
conveniences of life in destination areas as they have in their home coun-
tries, such as hot water available 24-hours a day, flushing toilets, air condi-
tioned rooms, comfortable transportation, familiar food and so on. The
tourism industry that serves travellers from developed nations tends to
impose the cultural values of these nations upon the indigenous populations
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