Travel Reference
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tourist-historic cities, integrated beach resort development, tourism shopping
villages, tourism business districts, tourism destination areas, and tourism
districts (McDonnell & Darcy, 1998). While the central and provincial gov-
ernments of Indonesia and Bali have in many ways been the developers of
tourism, Fiji's government has taken on more of a role of support. In Bali
there are four well-defined tourism areas (Kuta, Sanur, Nusa Dua, and Ubud)
along with other more minor areas, while in Fiji, tourist attractions tend to
be more scattered over a wide area with no distinctive tourism precincts
(McDonnell & Darcy, 1998).
There is debate in the literature as to the merits of enclave resorts versus
integrated resorts on islands. Enclave resorts are characterised by the follow-
ing three points: the structure is not intended to benefit the local residents
directly; the site is physically separated from the existing community; and
they are used almost exclusively by foreign tourists (Jenkins, 1982a). It is
argued that resort enclaves are dominated by multinationals with a manage-
ment style that creates and controls the physical and cultural environment
for the tourist (Freitag, 1994). Enclave resort development in the Dominican
Republic is blamed for exploiting local lower classes as cheap labour while
national elites and foreign countries are the ones that benefit from higher
incomes (Freitag, 1994). This type of development places the destination
community in a dependent position. Carlisle and Jones (2012) note that the
beach enclave is a landscape of power that protects the tourists rather than
national interests with leisure access and business opportunities for locals.
However, integrated tourism development attempts to match the scale of the
project to fit within the local community. Integrated tourism development is
characterised by its small scale, with local capital and management (Jenkins,
1982a). Jenkins (1982a) hypothesised that this type of tourism development
may be more easily assimilated into the host community. Rodenburg (1980)
evaluated the social and economic effects of international standard hotels,
economy hotels and homestays in Bali and found that the best development
strategy did not always include large industrial tourism. It was suggested that
smaller-scale enterprises may present greater opportunities for control and
profit by local people. Jenkins (1982a) criticised Rodenburg (1980) by arguing
that large-scale tourist developments were likely due to market structure of
international tourism and external economies of scale, and suggested that
problems with tourism could be mitigated to some extent if there is pre-
project planning. While initial debates tended to surround whether small-
scale tourism development was more sustainable than large-scale development,
now the focus is on making all forms of development more sustainable. In the
Caribbean, NGOs are becoming increasingly important for national and
regional development. Organisations such as the Caribbean Natural Resources
Institute (CANARI) are involved in strengthening the capacity of human
communities to manage natural resources. This organisation has been pro-
moting nature-based tourism on the south-east coast of St. Lucia as part of a
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