Travel Reference
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multipliers, improves a city's aesthetic and built environment and enhances
facilities for residents. In addition, advocates argue that with a lack of alter-
natives for developing an economic base, if cities do not compete for tourism
dollars they will lose out in an increasingly global environment (Fainstein &
Judd, 1999). Those opposed to this type of renewal argue that its potential
as a growth engine falls short on claims made by proponents. They claim
that imitations of publicised festival market places such as those in Boston
or Baltimore do not always work in other cities. Detractors cite examples of
US city-centre retail markets, which failed to meet expected visitor flows or
incurred losses such as those in Toledo, Ohio; Richmond, Virginia; and St.
Louis, Missouri (Fainstein & Judd, 1999). In addition, detractors argue the
impact of convention centres has fallen short of expected projections; how-
ever, cities are forced to upgrade facilities just to keep up with the competi-
tion (Fainstein & Judd, 1999).
In the context of a city, tourism is just one form of industry, and how it
is integrated into the community can have an impact on its role in regional
development. In some cities where there are high urban crime rates, rather
than integrating the new tourism development into the surrounding com-
munity, it is cordoned off, designed to separate the affluent tourists, such as
with the Renaissance Centre in Detroit in the US (Fainstein & Judd, 1999).
Granville Island in the city of Vancouver, Canada is a successful mixed-use
area which combines a market, bookstores, tourist shops, a hotel, a theatre,
restaurants and cafés along with traditional waterfront businesses such as
chandlers, boat repairs and moorings. The project was developed on an incre-
mental scale and benefits not only tourists but also local residents and busi-
nesses (Hall, 2000). Hall (2000) suggests that appropriate tourism development
may mean that relatively small-scale change with public involvement such
as in Granville Island is better than large-scale development with limited
numbers of owners. While the large-scale projects may be attractive to politi-
cians, the gradual change may be more sustainable. An important point is
raised by Hall and Jenkins (1995) in that, while local and regional govern-
ments may see tourism as a source of employment and income, the role of
tourism within the bigger picture of economic and social development pro-
cesses is often lost.
Governments have become more entrepreneurial in trying to attract
tourists to their cities through various government agencies or tourism devel-
opment corporations. For example, the Tourism Partnership of Niagara,
Canada, one of Ontario's 13 Regional Tourism Organisations, is turning
towards increased place marketing. The city of St. Catharines in Niagara is
redeveloping its downtown core with a new hockey arena, performing arts
centre and a school of fine and performing arts with Brock University. Some
cities have an existing historical image while others try to create an image.
The creation of a landmark building such as the Sydney Opera House or the
CN Tower in Toronto can be a valuable attraction as well as giving a city a
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