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and formal nature of agglomerations of actors and agencies involved with
economic development. Institutional thickness depends on 'inter-institutional
interaction and synergy; collective representation by many bodies; a common
industrial purpose; and shared cultural norms and values' (Amin & Thrift,
1994, cited in Dredge & Jenkins, 2003: 387). Dredge and Jenkins (2003) argue
that institutional thickness has implications for tourism and provide the
example that at the local level tourism is often fragmented and that alliances
and synergies have to be built. Calls have been made for increased collabora-
tion and strategic alliances within the tourism industry for firms and regions
to become more competitive (Bramwell & Lane, 2000; Telfer, 2000c). Sinclair
and Stabler (1997) also note the importance of economic integration in tour-
ism (vertical, horizontal and conglomerate) between firms as a way to
respond to competition.
Calls for increased collaboration in tourism go beyond just the business
environment but are also the focus of sustainable development, defined as
'development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs' (WCED, 1987: 4). From
the global to the local level, tourism policy and planning has increasingly
been defined by the objectives of sustainable development (Sharpley,
2009b). The Brundtland Commission continues to hold influence in tour-
ism development (Telfer, 2013; see Chapter 15), although the extent to
which it has been put into practice remains debatable (Sharpley, 2009b). As
Hall (2000) suggests, meeting the conditions of sustainability is a major
political, economic and environmental issue that requires new ways of think-
ing about development and growth along with the role of individuals, gov-
ernments and the private sector. Community involvement in the tourism
planning process is linked to sustainable development and the work of
Murphy (1985), who emphasises an ecological, community approach to
development and planning, encouraging local initiative, local benefits and a
tourism product which is in harmony with the local environment and com-
munity (see Chapter 6). If a nation incorporates sustainability and commu-
n it y i nvolvement i nto reg iona l tour ism pla n n i ng it w i l l me a n a decentra l isation
of power along with an increased focus on the environment.
There are a number of models developed in the tourism literature that are
useful in the context of regional development. Under the diffusionist para-
digm, it is assumed that development is inevitable, it occurs in stages and
development is diffused from the core to the periphery (Oppermann & Chon,
1997). Butler (1980) developed the Tourism Area Cycle of Evolution, which
draws on the product life cycle. Tourism developments go through the follow-
ing stages: exploration, involvement, development, consolidation, stagnation,
decline or rejuvenation. In the context of regional development it is important
to note that while initial control of the industry is held locally, eventually
larger multinational firms enter the market. If the region stagnates and goes
into decline, the usefulness of tourism as a regional development tool will also
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