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workers in a country, or worldwide, or to work with developing country
governments to establish a policy environment conducive to controlling the
activities of foreign investors and protecting local businesses.
Limitations of PPT
The above examples of NGOs, the private sector and development agen-
cies supporting tourism for poverty alleviation have shown some promise,
although a few concerns have also been raised. Over 35 years ago Turner and
Ash warned in their landmark book on The Golden Hordes: International
Tourism and the Pleasure Periphery , that 'tourism has proved remarkably inef-
fective as a promoter of equality and as an ally of the oppressed' (1975: 53,
cited in Higgins-Desbiolles, 2006: 1193). Is there any reason for us to believe
that things have changed radically due to the emergence of the PPT concept
and a few hundred PPT initiatives around the globe ?
As the major players in this industry, as in any industry, are still con-
cerned with profit maximisation, we need to consider whether PPT is just
'window dressing', or tokenistic, or, like transformations made under a 'green
agenda' before it, intended mainly to reduce costs and/or enhance the posi-
tive publicity for the agencies concerned. Even writers who, overall, are opti-
mistic in their assessment of PPT tend to conclude that pro-poor tourism '. . .
is easier said than done' (Van der Duim & Caalders, 2008: 122). Some major
limitations of PPT reaching its potential are considered below.
Labour rights in the tourism industry
A central concern for anyone promoting PPT should be the labour rights
of those in the tourism industry. Essentially, while growth of tourism can
certainly lead to more employment opportunities, these jobs do not neces-
sarily lead to increased well-being. For example, the bonded employment of
a 10-year-old boy in an Indian hotel where he must work at least 16 hours
per day every day of the week, is allowed to visit home once a year, and is
faced with regular verbal and physical abuse, cannot be considered an exam-
ple of tourism employment contributing to the alleviation of poverty. In this
case, the hotel may provide the boy with all of his basic needs while, at the
same time, trampling on his fundamental freedoms and self-esteem. While
this example may seem extreme, there is a great deal of evidence from around
the world about a lack of labour rights in the tourism industry, as seen in
evidence from Tourism Concern's campaign 'Sun, Sand, Sea and Sweatshops'. 3
Tourism can undermine livelihood opportunities
Another concern is that tourism has often directly undermined the liveli-
hoods of people who live off the natural environment by displacing them
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