HUMAN FACTORS, CHI, AND MIS - Human-Computer Interaction and Management Information Systems: Foundations - page 400

makers often have latitude in using a range of available systems. Similarly, CHI studies cover the
design of tools, techniques, and interfaces that can support nondiscretionary use. Degree of choice
could be considered a continuum rather than bimodal. For example, as peer pressure mounts on an
employee to share calendar information online, at what point does acquiescence cease to be vol-
untary? Yesterday's discretionary application may be mandatory today. Bows remained an option
when the first unreliable rifles appeared—for a short time. The first text editors appealed to the dis-
cretion of typewriter users; word processing is now generally mandatory.
The evolution of computing has a parallel in the earlier evolution of telephony. Management of
telephony (like computing) in a large organization involved planning, acquisition, policy, and per-
sonnel decisions. Telephone (computer) operators were nondiscretionary, hands-on users. Ergonomic
effort was devoted to reducing the time spent handling calls (computer operation). Some callers
(computer users), in contrast, were initially discretionary users who had alternative channels for
communication (work). Managers delegated calls (computer use) to secretaries.
In both cases, operators were phased out through automation. Direct dialing enables callers to
handle phone operations; computer operators disappeared as users began installing and running
programs on PCs. Other jobs involving mandatory use persisted: telephone call centers for direct
marketing and customer service, computer data entry, and order processing.
Although it is not crisp, the distinction between mandatory and discretionary use is vital. This
is especially true for computing. Rifles and telephones changed relatively slowly over time once
their use was established. In computing, the hardware advances symbolized by Moore's Law
ensure rapid ongoing evolution. Digital technology pushes into new areas, competing with exist-
ing alternatives. As performance increases and price decreases, digital technology eventually
wins such competitions and use becomes nondiscretionary, but by then technology has moved on
to provide a new array of discretionary options.
This perspective helps explain differences in focus of research funding. For example, U.S.
agencies such as NSF and DARPA did not draw human-computer interaction program managers
from the CHI community. Their funding is concentrated on topics that have little coverage in CHI,
such as speech recognition, natural language, and displays controlled by brain waves. The
post-World War II history of governmental focus on nondiscretionary use helps explain this.
The fate of previous interdisciplinary efforts suggests potential obstacles to SIGHCI collabo-
ration with CHI. SIGHCI accepts 40 percent to 70 percent of conference submissions and
progresses work to special journal issues. This is a great approach in a journal-oriented field,
but conference-oriented CHI researchers prefer selective conferences and do not value journal
publication. Sessions on HCI in MIS were organized for HCI International 2005, and special
MIS HCI journal issues have appeared in IJHCS, IJHCI , and Behaviour and Information
Technology (BIT).
BIT has been edited since its pre-CHI 1982 origin by Tom Stewart, a founding member of
HUSAT and a leader in ergonomics and standards development. Oriented more to human factors,
BIT reflects the historical MIS and human factors focus on nondiscretionary use. This remains a
valuable focus, given that discretionary use is often a brief phase that lasts until benefits are
proved or disproved. But it creates challenges in bridging to CHI.
However, the growing MIS focus on discretionary use, design, and marketing supports collab-
oration with CHI, and, as noted by the founders of AIS SIGHCI, MIS topics are of growing
importance to CHI. CHI developed when PCs were islands and commercial software focused on
individual productivity. Designers could ignore organizational context. With those days over, CHI
has much to learn about information systems, organizational behavior, marketing, management
science, economics, and other disciplines familiar to MIS researchers.