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in some of the oldest notions in architecture, put forward by Vitruvius (first century B . C .), who
enjoys a special place in architectural thought. Architectural theory from the Renaissance onward
has been based on his thoughts or on a dialogue with his ideas (Kruft, 1994). Vitruvius argued that
architecture must satisfy three distinct requirements: firmitas (strength), which covers the field of
statics, construction, and materials; utilitas (utility), the use of the building and its functioning;
and venustas (beauty), the aesthetic requirements (Kruft, 1994). Although architectural theories
have since evolved considerably, Vitruvian principles still hold much intuitive and theoretical
appeal to this date (Kruft, 1994).
It is easy to see the parallels between the Vitruvian principles and some of the principles gov-
erning the field of information systems. Much of the work in this field relates to the soundness and
the robustness of the artifacts created by professionals ( firmitas ). Traditionally, the various IT
disciplines have emphasized qualities related to the reliability, correctness, stability, and internal
logic of their products.
The second Vitruvian principle, utilitas , is addressed by a certain stream in MIS research and
by a large segment of the human-computer interaction (HCI) community. It deals with the ways
in which information technology should be designed to meet individual and organizational needs
in order to promote organizational efficiency and effectiveness (e.g., Ackoff, 1967; Keen and
Scott Morton, 1978). A sizable body of empirical research in the field of MIS has dealt with the
effects of IT on users. This stream of research can be traced back some three decades (e.g., Dickson
et al., 1977), to a time when the utility of an information system was measured mainly by objective
means (e.g., decision quality and speed). Subjective evaluations of the information system played
a minor role in the Minnesota experiments, but gained more attention during the next decade with
the introduction of the technology acceptance model (TAM) (Davis, 1989). Later researchers
began including aspects of subjective experience that went beyond mere utility valuations (e.g.,
Webster and Martocchio, 1992). Almost in parallel, but with somewhat different emphases, the
field of HCI emerged as a counterforce to the traditional firmitas -oriented computing disciplines.
In HCI, understanding users, their tasks, and how the system can facilitate achieving users' goals
were brought to the fore (Card et al., 1983). The main emphasis of these research efforts has been
studying and promoting efficiency (e.g., Butler, 1996).
Until very recently, however, the third Vitruvian requirement, venustas , was almost completely
absent from research in the various IT disciplines. This absence is particularly glaring in studies
of interactive systems. MIS and HCI texts hardly make any reference to matters of aesthetics.
Whenever aesthetic issues are discussed in the HCI literature, they are likely to be qualified with
warnings against their potentially detrimental effects. There may be a couple of reasons why the
computing disciplines have neglected aesthetics. One reason may stem from resentment of attempts
by some in the computer industry to oversell glitz and fashion in lieu of substance and usefulness.
Another reason may lie in the computing disciplines' origins in disciplines that emphasize hard
science, efficiency, and utility. Thus, other aspects of the interaction were not recognized as belong-
ing in the field.
However, other design disciplines have paid much attention to aesthetics and have spawned
lively debates regarding its merits. The balance between the aesthetic qualities of artifacts and the
other two Vitruvian dimensions has shifted through the years. The emphasis on mass production
following the industrial revolution tilted the pendulum away from aesthetic considerations. In the
early twentieth century, however, industrial designers began introducing aesthetic considerations
to mass production, partially for marketing purposes (Petroski, 1993). From the consumer viewpoint,
aesthetic quality can make engineering products more readily acceptable and can improve their
commercial value. Yamamoto and Lambert (1994) suggest that people cannot arrange and weigh
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