Biomedical Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
surrounding its use in running revolves around the issue of performance enhancement
afforded by prosthetic technology and the associated unfair advantage gained by users.
Debates emerged before the 2008 Beijing Olympic and Paralympic Games, addressing the
question of whether Oscar Pistorius, who was using an energy-storing prosthesis, should
be allowed to compete in the Olympic Games along with able-bodied athletes (Edwards
2008; Lippi and Mattiuzzi 2008; Jones and Wilson 2009). Although Pistorius was subse-
quently allowed to compete in the Olympic Games, eventually, his performance did not
meet the qualifying time.
Benefits of prosthetic technology in sports are also apparent in jumping events (e.g.,
long jump). In this field, athletes have utilized the developments in technology by adopt-
ing changes in jumping techniques, wherein the touch-down foot has shifted from the
anatomic to the prosthetic limb (Nolan and Lees 2007). Prosthetic limbs have been found
to be more effective than anatomical limbs in terms of absorption and release of ground
reaction force. Consequently, a mechanical advantage is achieved by generating higher
take-off velocities.
It appears that prosthetic technology and sport-specific techniques continue to advance
toward greater sports performance. However, associated research gaps are still apparent
in terms of the human-technology interface. In the case of wheelchairs, physiologic and
biomechanical responses among users have been quantified. In contrast, prosthesis users'
responses to the technology have yet to be adequately measured. In particular, the inter-
face between the prosthesis and the individual is found at the stump-socket relationship.
The stump-socket connection transmits the ground reaction forces to the amputee and
produces the energy required to move the prosthetic limb (Burkett 2010). The environ-
mental factors of air pressure, temperature, and humidity clearly may elicit changes in the
volume of the stump, consequently affecting the biomechanical interface. Furthermore,
although proprioceptive feedback appears to be fundamental in determining an athlete's
performance, sensorimotor aspects of the stump-socket interface have yet to be quanti-
fied. It appears that further studies in these areas of concern are needed to determine
the impact of prosthetic technology in facilitating sports participation for everyone and
threshing out the issue of any unfair advantage that might be afforded by technology.
19.4.3 Technology for Developing Countries
Mobility devices, such as wheelchairs, are generally accessible and affordable in developed
countries, but they are difficult to obtain in low-income developing countries because of
economic constraints (Kelly and Lindley 1994; Authier et al. 2007). A substantial number
of individuals with disabilities who are in need of wheelchairs are from these developing
countries (Kim and Mulholland 1999; Wheelchair Foundation 2011), where users are often
dependent on government or nongovernment organizations to purchase the equipment
(Krizack 2007). Consequently, individuals with disabilities are prevented by immobility
from taking part in education, employment, and recreation opportunities. This problem
has been well recognized and various organizations have implemented programs to pro-
vide basic mobility solutions for developing countries (Authier et al. 2007). The largest-
scale projects have been advocated by the International Paralympic Committee (IPC),
highlighting the role of sports participation among individuals with disabilities in driving
technology development for these low-income countries.
One such project aimed to design a sports wheelchair for use of individuals with disabil-
ities in low-income countries (Authier et al. 2007). Based in India, the design used materi-
als that were typically available in the country. This approach has been suggested as an
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