Removal of Persistent Organic Pollutants and Compounds of Emerging Concern in Public-Owned Sewage Treatment Works: A Review - Environmental Contamination: Health Risks and Ecological Restoration - page 179

and.CECs.effectively.because.of.their.diversity;.hence,.multiple-barrier.treat-
ments.may.be.the.most.effective.approach.to.take.
The.objective.of.sewage.treatment.is.to.produce.an.environmentally.safe.
stream.(efluent).and.a.solid.waste.(sludge).suitable.for.disposal.or.reuse.(such.
as.fertilizer)..It.is.now.possible,.using.advanced.technologies,.to.reuse.sew-
age.efluent.for.drinking.water..Singapore.is.the.only.country.to.implement.
such.technologies.on.a.large.manufacturing.scale,.in.its.creation.of.NEWater.
(2011)..In.1972,.Singapore's.irst.water.master.plan.was.drawn.up,.and.2.years.
later,.in.1974,.PUB.built.a.pilot.plant.to.turn.wastewater.into.potable.water,.
which.is.the.precursor.of.today's.NEWater.factories..But.the.plan.was.ahead.
of.its.time.as.the.costs.were.astronomical.and.the.membranes.selected.were.
unreliable..Thus,.the.plan.was.shelved.and.had.to.wait.for.further.scientiic.
advancements..By.1998,.the.necessary.technologies.had.been.developed.that.
brought.the.drinking-water.costs.down;.thus,.given.these.developments,.in.
May.2000,.the.irst.NEWater.plant.was.completed..There.are.currently.ive.
NEWater. plants. in. Singapore,. with. the. ifth. and. the. largest. one. located. at.
Changi,.opened.in.May.2010,.having.the.capacity.of.50.million.gallons.per.
day.(mgd)..After.the.expansion.of.the.existing.plants,.NEWater.is.estimated.
to. provide. 30%.of. Singapore's.total. water. demand..The. water. regeneration.
achievements.in.Singapore.demonstrate.the.future.alternative.sewage.treat-
ment.possibilities.that.other.countries.can.potentially.adopt.
References
AWWARE.. 2007.. Removal. of. EDCs. and. Pharmaceuticals. in. Drinking. and. Reuse.
Treatment.Process..Published.by.American.Water.Works.Association.Research.
Foundation.
Baronti. C,. Curini. R,. D'Ascenzo. G,. Di. Corcia. A,. Gentili. A,. and. Samperi. R.. 2000..
Monitoring. natural. and. synthetic. estrogens. at. activated. sludge. sewage. treat-
ment.plants.and.in.a.receiving.river.water.. Environmental Science and Technology .
34(24):.5059-5066.
Batt.AL,.Kim.S,.and.Aga.DS..2006..Enhanced.biodegradation.of.iopromide.and.trim-
ethoprim.in.nitrifying.activated.sludge.. Environmental Science and Technology .40.
(23):.7367-7373.
Birkett.JW.and.Lester.JN..2003.. Endocrine Disruptors in Wastewater and Sludge Treatment
Processes ..Lewis.Publishers,.Boca.Raton,.FL.
Carballa.M,.Omil.F,.Lema.JM,.Llompart.M,.Garcia-Jares.C,.Rodriguez.I,.Gomez.M,.
and.Ternes.T..2004..Behavior.of.pharmaceuticals,.cosmetics.and.hormones.in.a.
sewage.treatment.plant.. Water Research .38:.2918-2926.
Crittenden.J,.Trussell.R,.Hand.D,.Howe.K,.and.Tchobanoglous.G..2005.. Water Treatment
Principles and Design ,.2.edn..John.Wiley.&.Sons,.Hoboken,.NJ.
Cunningham.VL..2004..Special.characteristics.of.pharmaceuticals.related.to.environ-
mental. fate.. In:. Kümmerer. K. (ed.). Pharmaceuticals in the Environment: Sources,
Fate, Effects and Risks ..Springer,.Berlin,.Germany,.pp..12-24.