Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
GREENLAND
Arctic Circle
NORWAY
FINLAND
ICELAND
RUSSIA
60°
ESTONIA
LATVIA
LITHUANIA
BELARUS
60°
SWEDEN
DENMARK
NETH.
UNITED KINGDOM
IRELAND
POLAND
CZ. REP.
GER.
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
BELG.
UKRAINE
SLVK.
MOLDOVA
KAZAKHSTAN
AUST.
HUNG.
SWITZ.
FRANCE
MONGOLIA
ROM.
SLOV.
BOSNIA
SERB.
CROATIA
GEORGIA
ARMENIA
BULG.
KYRGYZSTAN
TAJIKISTAN
N.
KOREA
PORTUGAL
MACE.
SPAIN
MONT.
UZBEKISTAN
TURKMENISTAN
40°
40°
ITALY
GREECE
JAPAN
S.
KOREA
TURKEY
KOS.
ALB.
CHINA
SYRIA
AZERBAIJAN
TUNISIA
CYPRUS
LEBANON
IRAN
MOROCCO
IRAQ
AFGHANISTAN
PACIFIC
JORDAN
BHUTAN
ISRAEL
NEPAL
PAKISTAN
ALGERIA
KUWAIT
LIBYA
WESTERN
SAHARA
BAHRAIN
EGYPT
QATAR
BANGLADESH
INDIA
TAIWAN
Tropic of Cancer
U.A.E.
SAUDI
ARABIA
MYANMAR
(BURMA)
OMAN
20°
LAOS
MAURITANIA
CAPE VERDE
MALI
NIGER
SUDAN
YEMEN
VIETNAM
OCEAN
CHAD
ERITREA
THAILAND
CAMBODIA
SENEGAL
GAMBIA
GUINEA-BISSAU
SIERRA LEONE
LIBERIA
PHILIPPINES
BURKINA
FASO
DJIBOUTI
GUINEA
SRI LANKA
CÔTE
D'IVOIRE
NIGERIA
SOUTH
SUDAN
CENTRAL
AFRICAN REP.
ETHIOPIA
BRUNEI
MALAYSIA
SINGAPORE
SOMALIA
CAMEROON
INDIAN
GHANA
TOGO
BENIN
SÃO TOMÉ &
PRINCIPE
EQUATORIAL
GUINEA
UGANDA
KENYA
Equator
0°
CONGO
GABON
RWANDA
OCEAN
PAPUA
NEW
GUINEA
DEM. REP.
CONGO
BURUNDI
INDONESIA
SOLOMON
ISLANDS
TANZANIA
EAST TIMOR
COMOROS
ATLANTIC
ANGOLA
MALAWI
ZAMBIA
VANUATU
FIJI
MOCAMBIQUE
¸
MADAGASCAR
ZIMBABWE
20°
20°
20°
20°
20°
NAMIBIA
MAURITIUS
NEW
CALEDONIA
BOTSWANA
Tropic of Capricorn
AUSTRALIA
OCEAN
SWAZILAND
LESOTHO
SOUTH
AFRICA
NEW
ZEALAND
40°
40°
40°
0°
20°
40°
60°
100°
120°
140°
160°
60°
60°
60°
60°
SOUTHERN
OCEAN
Antarctic Circle
theory. The series of events spurring these two components
also varies by theory. One theory maintains that advances in
technology such as irrigation generated an agricultural sur-
plus, and a leadership class formed to control the surplus and
the technology that produced it. Another theory holds that
a king or priest-king centralized political power and then
demanded more labor to generate an agricultural surplus,
which would help the ruler retain political power.
Regardless of how the leadership class was established,
we do know that once established, it helped generate the sur-
plus and facilitated that control of its distribution. The link
between the surplus and the leadership class is clear in early
cities, where the home of the leaders was often positioned
close to the grain storage. The
leadership class
, or urban
elite, consisted of a group of decision makers and organiz-
ers who controlled the resources, and often the lives, of oth-
ers. The urban elite controlled the food supply, including
its production, storage, and distribution. Generating an
agricultural surplus enabled some people to devote their
efforts to pursuits besides agriculture. The urban elite, for
instance, did not work the fi elds. Rather, they devoted time
to other pursuits such as religion and philosophy. Out of
such pursuits came the concepts of writing and recordkeep-
ing. Writing made possible the codifi cation of laws and the
preservation of traditions. Urban elites defended themselves
by constructing walls on the outskirts of the city. However,
the leadership class collected taxes and tribute from people
within their control beyond the city walls.