Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
optimistically about a new geopolitical world order where
a standoff of nuclear terror between two superpowers
would no longer determine the destinies of states. Sup-
posedly, this new geopolitical order would be shaped by
the forces that connect nations and states; by s
we will discuss in Chapter 9, global cities may gain increas-
ing power over issues typically addressed by states.
upranational
entities like the European Union (discussed in the next
section of this cha
pter); and, should any state violate inter-
national rules of conduct, by multilateral military action.
The risks of nuclear war would recede, and negotiation
would replace confrontation. When a United Nations
coalition of states led by the United States in 1991 drove
Iraq out of Kuwait, the framework of a New World Order
seemed to be taking shape. The Soviet Union, which a few
years before was the United States' principal geopolitical
antagonist, endorsed the operation. Arab as well as non-
Arab forces helped repel the i
Read a major newspaper (in print or online) and look for a
recent statement by a world political leader regarding interna-
tional politics. Using the concept of critical geopolitics, deter-
mine what geopolitical view of the world the leader has—how
does he or she view and divide up the world spatially?
WHAT ARE SUPRANATIONAL
ORGANIZATIONS, AND WHAT ARE THEIR
IMPLICATIONS FOR THE STATE?
Ours is a world of contradictions. Over the past
couple of decades some French Canadians, Quebeçois,
have demanded independence from Canada even as
Canada joined the United States and Mexico in NAFTA
(the North American Free Trade Agreement). Flemings
in northern Belgium called for autonomy or even inde-
pendence despite the fact that Brussels, the capital of Bel-
gium (and Flanders), serves as the de facto capital of the
European Union. At every turn we are reminded of the
interconnectedness of nations, states, and regions; yet,
separatism and calls for autonomy are rampant. In the
early decades of the twenty-fi rst century, we appear to be
caught between the forces of division and unifi cation.
Despite confl icts arising from these contradictory
forces, today hardly a country exists that is not involved
in some supranational organization. A
supranational
organization
is an entity composed of three or more
states that forge an association and form an administra-
tive structure for mutual benefi t and in pursuit of shared
goals. The twentieth century witnessed the establishment
of numerous supranational associations in political, eco-
nomic, cultural, and military spheres.
Today, states have formed over 60 major suprana-
tional organizations (such as NATO and NAFTA), many
of which have subsidiaries that bring the total to more
than 100 (Figure 8.22). The more states participate in
such multilateral associations, the less likely they are to
act alone in pursuit of a self-interest that might put them
at odds with neighbors. And in most cases participation in
a supranational entity is advantageous to the partners, and
being left out can have serious negative implications.
nvaders.
Soon, however, doubts and uncertainties began
to cloud hopes for a mutually cooperative geopolitical
world order. Although states were more closely linked
to each other than ever before, national self-interest still
acted as a powerful force. Nations wanted to become
states, and many did, as the number of United Nations
members increased from 159 in 1990 to 184 by 1993 and
192 as of 2006. At the same time, a variety of organiza-
tions not tied to specifi c territories posed a new challenge
to the territorially defi ned state. The number and power
of economic and social networks that extend across state
borders increased. The new world order includes non-
state organizations with political agendas that are not
channeled through states and are often spatially diffuse.
Some hoped to see a geopolitical world order based
on
unilateralism
, with the United States in a position
of hard-power dominance and with allies of the United
States following rather than joining the political decision-
making process. The U.S. military budget is as large as all
the military budgets of all other states in the world com-
bined. The United States' controversial invasion of Iraq
signifi cantly undermined its infl uence in many parts of the
globe. Southeast Asian states that had long been oriented
toward the United States began to turn away. A signifi -
cant rift developed across the Atlantic between the United
States and some European countries, and anti-American-
ism surged around the world. The processes of globaliza-
tion, the diffusion of nuclear weapons, the emergence of
China and India as increasingly signifi cant powers, and the
growth of networked groups and organizations, including
terrorist groups, also challenged American unilateralism.
When geopolitical strategists and intellectuals of
statecraft predict future geopolitical orders, they often
assume that individual states will continue to be the domi-
nant actors in the international arena. Yet as we discuss later
in this chapter, many of the same forces that worked against
American unilateralism have undermined some of the tra-
ditional powers of the state. The rise of regional blocs could
lead to a new multipolar order, with key clusters of states
functioning as major geopolitical nodes. Alternatively, as
From League of Nations to United Nations
The modern beginnings of the supranational move-
ment can be traced to conferences following World
