Notes - Burdens of Proof - page 198

550-599; Lance J. Hoffman, ed., Building in Big Brother: The Cryptographic Policy Debate
(New York: Springer, 1995).

53. Menezes, van Oorschot, and Vanstone, Handbook of Applied Cryptography , 256.

54. Quoted in Smid and Branstad, “The Data Encryption Standard,” 48.

55. Whitfield Diffie and Martin E. Hellman, “Exhaustive Cryptanalysis of the NBS
Data Encryption Standard,” Computer 10, no. 6 (June 1977), 74.

56. Menezes, van Oorschot, and Vanstone, Handbook of Applied Cryptography , 277.

57. Slavoj Žižek, Iraq: The Borrowed Kettle (London: Verso Books, 2005), 10.

58. See Philip E. Agre, “Toward a Critical Technical Practice: Lessons Learned in
Trying to Reform AI,” in Social Science, Technical Systems, and Cooperative Work:
Beyond the Great Divide , ed. Geof Bowker, Les Gasser, Leigh Star, and Bill Turner
(Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1997), 131-157.

3 On the Brink of a Revolution

1. The history of Diffie and Hellman's invention has been extensively chronicled
in the media and several journalistic accounts, such as Levy's Crypto and Singh's The
Code Book . As is often the case with scientific discovery, the concepts were somewhat
“in the air,” and other researchers have now been recognized as coinventors of
public-key cryptography. Ralph Merkle first wrote about the concept in 1974 while
an undergraduate at Berkeley; his work was repeatedly rejected until finally pub-
lished in 1978—see Ralph C. Merkle, “Secure Communications over Insecure Chan-
nels,” Communications of the ACM 21, no. 4 (1978): 294-299. A group of researchers
at the British Government Communications Headquarters—James Ellis, Clifford
Cocks, and Malcolm Williamson—also independently came up with the idea in 1969
and 1973, but their work remained classified and was recognized publicly only in
1997. Though Diffie has recognized the priority of their contribution, he com-
mented, “In my view, the issue of how well they understood the significance of
what they were doing remains open” (http://cryptome.org/ukpk-diffie.htm).

2. Diffie and Hellman, “New Directions in Cryptography,” 644.

3. Among the numerous articles, reports, and books published on the topic, see:
Susan Landau et al., “Crypto Policy Perspectives,” Communications of the ACM 37,
no. 8 (1994): 115-121; Lance J. Hoffman et al., “Cryptography Policy,” Communica-
tions of the ACM 37, no. 9 (1994): 109-117; Hoffman, Building in Big Brother ; Kenneth
W. Dam and Herbert Lin, eds., Cryptography's Role in Securing the Information Society
(CRISIS) (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1996); David Banisar, Cryptog-
raphy and Privacy Sourcebook (Washington, DC: Electronic Privacy Information
Center, 1996); David Banisar and Bruce Schneier, The Electronic Privacy Papers: Docu-
ments on the Battle for Privacy in the Age of Surveillance (New York: John Wiley and