Travel Reference
In-Depth Information
between behavioural inclination and reality is a recognized phenomenon for sustainability and
consumer behaviour. Hall and Brown (2006) allude to the gap when discussing the rhetoric of
buying responsible tourism products set against the common desire for low prices and
convenience. A UK research study found the majority of respondents willing to pay more for a
holiday if the money went to responsible initiatives; however, the co-authors noted that the
views were aspirational rather than concrete behaviours (Goodwin and Francis 2003). Research
by the British Air Transport Association found 56 per cent of people claimed concern about the
environmental impacts of air travel, but only 13 per cent had changed their travel behaviours to
refl ect these concerns (Sustainable Aviation Council 2006). There is complementary industry
evidence to suggest that sustainable and responsible holidays make up a small percentage of total
sales (Bowen and Clarke 2009; Thomson Future Holiday Forum 2004).
Of the pro-environmental consumer behaviours sought by the UK government, the avoidance
of unnecessary short haul fl ights has been highlighted as one type of behaviour characterized by
limited adoption amongst the UK population yet of signifi cant CO
2
impact (Department for
Environment, Food and Rural Affairs 2008). Since the widespread availability and growth of
fl ights to holiday and short break destinations in the post-war era for developed country
populations (in itself raising issues of equity across the global population), such tourists have
come to regard fl ying as part of their lifestyles and normal behaviour patterns and this behaviour
is entrenched. Research by Target Group Index (2008) found that although 2 per cent of the
population of France, America and the UK could be labelled as 'eco-adopters' exhibiting many
pro-environmental behaviours and values, for personal travel these eco-adopters had personal
carbon footprints larger than the average. For example, French eco-adopters were 63 per cent
more likely than average to have taken three or four fl ights a year, whilst American eco-adopters
were 122 per cent more likely to be members of a frequent fl ier scheme (TGI 2008).
There is some criticism of endorsing strategies for behavioural transformation based on
encouragement of small changes in behaviour (recycling, re-using, adoption of energy effi cient
products etc.) which have some track record of success with an accompanying belief in the
overspill effect into larger and more diffi cult changes such as reduction in fl ight consumption
(WWF 2008). The criticism runs that in reality there is less of an overspill effect and more of a
compensation effect. The rationale for the individual follows the line that because as an individual
they engage with recycling, re-using and using energy effi cient products in and around their
home, they can continue to fl y because this is supposedly counterbalanced by their environmental
behaviour in their home environment. This is the compensation effect but consumer belief in its
effi cacy is misplaced. It is apparent that motivation, or the driving force behind behaviour, is an
important factor to take into account for sustainability and marketing for responsible tourism.
The question of motivation
A distinction is drawn between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation for more sustainable
consumption. Intrinsic motivation aligning behaviour with affi liation, community feeling,
emotional intimacy and personally held pro-environmental values is argued to be a more
powerful driver than extrinsic motivation with its emphasis on social recognition, self-interest,
materialism and fi nancial gain (Common Cause Research 2012; WWF 2008). If consumers
change their behaviours on a cost-saving appeal (for example, the savings on home insulation or
energy effi cient bulbs), the evidence suggests they are less likely to switch, for example, from a
low cost fl ight to the Mediterranean to taking the more expensive option of the train. If changes
in behaviour stem from intrinsic motivation and the belief in doing environmental good, then
the fl ight-to-train switch becomes more likely. This argument suggests that the motivation that
