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destination brands. Consistent with cognitive appraisal theories, canonical correlation analysis
supports an emotion-appraisal model in the tourism context. Results indicate that appraisals of
pleasantness, goal congruence and internal self-compatibility elicit the emotional responses of
love, joy and surprise toward destinations.
Pleasantness refers to the appraisal of whether the outcome of a situation is good or bad
(positive or negative) (Watson and Spence 2007). The appraisal of pleasantness is a fundamental
dimension and accounts for the majority of variance explained in attempts to categorise emotions
(Smith and Ellsworth 1985; Ruth, Brunel and Otnes 2002). Furthermore, goal congruence,
referred to as motive consistency (Roseman
et al
. 1990), desirability (Ortony, Clore and Collins
1988) or goal signifi cance (Scherer 1984) involves an assessment of the degree to which a
situation is or is not conducive to goal fulfi lment. A close link exists between people's goals and
the emotions they experience (Carver and Scheier 1990). Goal-congruent situations lead to
positive emotions and goal-incongruent situations generate negative emotions. Holidaying is a
form of leisure in which tourists anticipate to have fun, pleasurable, satisfying and memorable
experiences (Sirgy 2010). If tourists, at the end of their holiday, achieve their desired goals,
positive emotions are elicited toward the destination.
Internal self-compatibility involves assessing the degree to which an event is compatible with
one's self-concept (Scherer 1984, 1988). Hosany's (2012) results indicate that when tourists
perceive the destination experience as compatible with their internal self, such a situation elicits
joy, love and positive surprise. Prior studies recognize the relevance of self-image congruence in
understanding tourist behaviours (e.g. Beerli, Meneses and Gil 2007; Hosany and Martin 2012).
For example, Beerli
et al
. (2007) found the greater the match between a destination's image and
one self-concept, the greater the tendency for tourists to visit that place.
In addition to pleasantness, goal congruence and self-compatibility, Hosany's (2012) study
revealed that novelty and uncertainty elicits surprise. Novelty is an assessment of whether a
stimulus event deviates from one's expectations. The appraisal of novelty is connected to the
familiarity and predictability of an occurrence (Scherer 1988). Certainty involves assessing
the perceived likelihood of particular outcome (Roseman 1984; Smith and Ellsworth 1985).
Certainty about a situation or outcomes arises from experience or knowledge as a result of prior
exposure (Johnson and Stewart 2005). The certainty dimensions differentiate emotions with a
known outcome, such as joy and anticipatory emotions with unknown outcomes, such as hope
and surprise (Roseman 1984; Smith and Ellsworth 1985). Hosany's (2012) fi ndings demonstrate
the importance for destination marketers to manage tourists' expectations in order to engender
positively surprising experiences. In turn, pleasant surprise is associated with higher levels
of satisfaction (Oliver and Westbrook 1993) and favourable word-of-mouth (Derbaix and
Vanhamme 2003).
Cognitive appraisal theorists propose a range of dimensions as determinants of emotional
responses. However, Hosany's (2012) study only focuses on key appraisal dimensions (as discussed
above) that elicit positive emotions of joy, love and surprise. Future research could investigate the
underlying conditions that cause negative emotions such as regret and disappointment toward
destination brands. Three key appraisal dimensions are relevant to understand negative emotions:
fairness, coping potential and agency. The appraisal of fairness refers to the extent one perceives
an event to be appropriate and fair (Frijda 1986; Scherer 1988; Smith and Ellsworth 1985). Prior
studies in the context of service failure and recovery establish the fairness-emotion relationship
(e.g. McColl-Kennedy and Sparks 2003). Coping potential refl ects an individual's evaluation
of the potential to cope with a situation to attain a desired outcome or avoid an undesired
one (Lazarus 1991). Finally, appraising agency involves the attribution of cause (oneself, someone
else or circumstance) to an outcome (Ortony
et al
. 1988; Roseman 1991). Consumer research
