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interested in positive surprise and its relationship with consumption related outcome variables
such as satisfaction, loyalty and word-of-mouth. For example, Westbrook and Oliver (1991) note
that positively surprised customers are usually more satisfi ed and exhibit higher levels of loyalty.
Likewise, destination marketers, incorporate 'surprise' in their branding campaigns (e.g. 'Amazing
Thailand, Amazing Value'). Other examples include: Germany 'Simply Inspiring'; Netherlands
'Surprising Cities'; 'Fascinating' Malaysia; and Edinburgh 'Inspiring Capital'.
The DES dimensions represent positive valence emotions. A plausible explanation for the
absence of negative emotions in tourists' evaluations is that vacations are characterized as a set
of positive experiential processes (Mannell and Iso-Ahola 1987; Nawijn 2011). Vacations are
usually positively anticipated (Mitchell et al . 1997) and are primarily consumed for hedonic
purposes (Otto and Ritchie 1996). Tourists seek pleasurable and memorable experiences through
the consumption of their vacation (Currie 1997). In addition, people tend to reconstruct their
holistic experiences by forgetting unsatisfactory occurrences (Klaaren, Hodges and Wilson 1994)
in order to reduce their cognitive dissonance (Cooper and Fazio 1984).
Nevertheless, some destinations around the world are judged risky, elicit negative emotions
such as fear and tourists worry about visiting them (Larsen, Brun and Ogaard, 2009). Other
studies on dark tourism show that some places evoke negative emotions including fear, sadness,
depression and empathy (Miles, 2002; Kang et al . 2012). Realizing the need for a balanced
sampling of tourists' emotional responses, Hosany and Prayag's (2013) study adapted the DES,
adding a negative emotion dimension - unpleasantness (unhappiness, displeasure, regret, sadness
and disappointment). Hosany and Prayag (2013) uncover a small segment of tourists exhibiting
high levels of negative emotions toward destination brands.
Appraisal dimensions as determinants of tourists' emotional responses
Evolution in psychology research unifi es the study of emotions into cognitive appraisal theories.
Arnold (1960) fi rst coins the term appraisal referring to the cognitive process involved in
emotion elicitation. Appraisal theories consider cognition as antecedent of emotion '[E]valuation
and interpretations of events, rather than events per se determine whether an emotion will be
felt and which emotion it will be' (Roseman, Spindel and Jose 1990: 899). For example, joy is
elicited by the appraisal of an event as benefi cial and within reach, anger by appraising an event
as goal obstructive (Frijda 1986). The psychology literature is replete with many independently
developed, yet highly convergent appraisal theories (Scherer 1988). Following Arnold's (1960)
classical view, four independent appraisal theories appeared in the 1980s (i.e. Scherer 1984;
Roseman 1984, 1991; Smith and Ellsworth 1985; Frijda 1986). All four theories suggest
emotions are derived as a result of an individual's subjective evaluations of a situation or event
on a number of appraisal dimensions. The four theories differ in terms of the number of
appraisal dimensions but there is a high degree of convergence with regard to the nature of
appraisal dimensions. Pleasantness, goal congruence, unexpectedness, certainty and compatibility
with social or personal standards are common across the proposed models.
Recent consumer research highlights the merits of appraisal theories to understand the
determinants of consumption emotions (Ruth and Otnes 2002; Johnson and Stewart 2005;
Soscia 2007; Watson and Spence 2007). For example, Watson and Spence (2005) propose an
integrative theory of consumer behaviour linking appraisals, consumption emotions and post-
consumption evaluations such as satisfaction and behavioural intentions. However, with the
notable exception of Hosany's (2012) study, applications of appraisal theories in tourism research
remain largely underexplored. Hosany (2012) further extended Hosany and Gilbert's (2010)
conceptualization and investigates the determinants of tourists' emotional responses toward
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