Travel Reference
In-Depth Information
Much of the debate on the digital divide spans the period 1986-2005, however fairly little
attention has been given to this concept within tourism. More contemporary work on the
digital divide by Minghetti and Buhalis (2010: 278) articulates that 'tourists and destinations
within developed countries and between developed and developing countries suffer from a
multiplicity of technological divides (motivational, physical, informational, etc.), which lead
to different levels of digital exclusion'. It is evident that the digital divide issues are also
present in the travel and tourism context and it may even be argued that due to the interaction
between countries which is necessitated by tourism, the digital divide may be more resonant in
this industry.
While discussions of the digital divide have been active since the 1970s, the debate became
more vibrant as theorists such as Castells (2000) argue that the existing inequality and polarization
are outcomes of 'informational capitalism' which must be consciously addressed through public
policy. Norris (2000) also posits that in the face of world poverty the digital divide is likely to
continue in the foreseeable future. What has been consistent throughout decades of research is
that there is a knowledge gap which continues to widen with unequal access to information
technologies.
The digital divide has been conceptualized in three ways. The fi rst was the access divide and
then subsequently the learning and content divides became more resonant. The argument put
forward by James (2004) serves to point to a closing of the divide based on access. It, however,
does not challenge the position of Rogers (2003) which states that while the access-divide
has received most of the attention, it is the learning-divide and content-divide among others
which will present a disadvantage for some. This argument provides key insights into issues
of matching content to audience needs. Innovators and designers of information technology
are likely to create content that suits its own audience in the fi rst instance. Even if this content
is later customized for external audiences this ensures a lag as the learning curve for external
users is initially higher based on the introduction of content that is not necessarily suited for
that environment.
The leadership imperative
The importance of leadership in a discussion of ICT adoption in tourism distribution cannot
be overlooked. Kouzes and Posner (1987) defi ne leadership as a reciprocal relationship which
clearly separates those who infl uence from those who are infl uenced. Hitt
et al
. (2001) describe
the leader as a catalyst for strategic change. It is therefore critical to assess dominant leadership
categories. In his seminal work more than three decades ago, Burns (1978) introduced the
concepts of transformational and transactional leadership. Since then a number of researchers
(Bass and Avolio 2003; Singh and Krishnan 2007) have attempted to expand on these concepts
in particular in the area of their measurement. Leadership has been found to be a key driver of
technology adoption in small owner-managed travel and distribution fi rms (Spencer 2012)
though research which focuses on these leadership classifi cations in the travel and technology
context has been lacking.
Broadly speaking, transformational leaders uplift the morale, motivation, and morals of their
followers while transactional leaders cater to their followers' immediate self-interests. Leadership
that creates change is an important element of transformational leadership and provides a
framework for exploring attributes of change leadership. According to Bass (1999) a considerable
amount of empirical research has been completed since the seminal work of Burns (1978),
supporting the utility of the distinction between the two forms of leadership. He further
articulated that changes in the marketplace and workforce over these decades have resulted in
