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Alternative approaches
The experience of satisfaction
In cognitive models satisfaction is defi ned by the degree the experience has met expected
outcomes, rather than on the actual experience itself. In alternative approaches the focus is
on understanding tourism as an experience and thus attention is placed on the experiential
benefi ts of tourism as an important factor in tourist satisfaction and in understanding the
contribution of consumption experiences. They advocate that understanding customer
experiences and benefi ts is critical for suppliers since customers perceive these experiences to be
the core product (the bundle of memories they take away with them) (Slatten et al . 2011).
Focusing on experiences leads to an emphasis on the emotional aspects of consumers' evalua-
tions rather than rational cognition for as Otto and Ritchie (1996: 168) observe 'perhaps
more than any other service, tourism holds the potential to elicit strong emotional and
experiential reactions'. Emotional reactions and subjective responses are therefore seen as
fundamental determinants of tourist satisfaction and post-consumption behaviour (McIntosh
and Siggs 2005: 74).
In most cases, priority is given to a contextual understanding of the experience and to
reconstructing the actor's own world-view in a way that is faithful to their everyday life (Rock
2001). The practical knowledge that people employ to guide their own actions is also important
since individuals are interpretive beings that construct their lives purposefully and practically,
creating meaning from their interactions with their environment (Rock ibid.). From an
experiential perspective, focus is shifted away from the product to the perceptions or the meaning
that the experience has for the individual. Tourists constantly construct their experiences in
relation to their cultural context and the meaning of the experience to them as members of their
culture. They are active agents and co-producers and to some extent 'responsible for creating
their own satisfaction' (Slatten et al . 2011: 87).
By adopting an experiential, meaning-based approach, in-depth insights of the wider factors
which contribute to satisfaction can be gleaned. For example Otto and Ritchie (1996) identifi ed
six dimensions in the tourism experience: hedonic, novelty, comfort, safety, stimulation and
interaction, whilst Obenour et al . (2006) highlighted the importance of social interaction,
independence and the symbols of distinctive accommodation for backpackers. Bitner (1992) and
Swan and Trawick (1999) have shown that elements of the physical environment elicit strong
emotional and subjective reactions and, as a consequence, infl uence satisfaction. Through gaining
insights pertaining to the holistic perspective, suggestions can be made to improve satisfaction
most notably through improvements in service design.
Others have noted the important contribution of service personnel such as tour leaders
(Swan and Bowers 1998) and guides (Arnould et al . 1999) to satisfaction. Similarly Jennings and
Weiler (2006) refer to the role of both formal (guides, representatives, service personnel)
and informal (other tourists, host population) 'brokers' in mediating the experience. Arnould and
Price (1993) found that the interaction with others sharing the journey had a profound effect
upon tourists' satisfaction with the trip and the importance of this social aspect is a theme which
recurs in a number of studies (Obenour et al . 2006; Murphy 2001; Andereck et al . 2006; Yarnal
and Kerstetter 2005). However, such is the importance of social interaction to certain tourists
that a service provider and/or product may be judged on the degree to which the provider/
product offers a suitable venue or 'space' to facilitate social interaction (Obenour et al . 2006;
Murphy 2001; Yarnal and Kerstetter 2005). Furthermore Gainer (1995) argues that by shifting
the focus of inquiry to the relationship among consumers, a company may be evaluated not only
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