Travel Reference
In-Depth Information
Chaos-based theories
Although much of the above furthers our understanding of collaboration and the collabora-
tive process, Wang and Fesenmaier (2007) conclude that in most cases collaboration has to be
viewed on a case-by-case and highly context-specifi c basis, a view that in part justifi es the
increasing prevalence of chaos-based theories as a suitable vehicle to explain collaborative
behaviour. Defi ned by Seeger (2002: 239) as a 'broad set of loosely related theoretical and meta-
theoretical orientations to the behaviour of complex non-linear systems', chaos theory is
based on the premise that predictable linear relationships rarely exist in reality. Non-linear,
highly complex systems are the norm with them being subject to random occurrences and
highly susceptible to their operating conditions. Similar to elements of process-based theories
chaos theory explores the dissolution and regrouping of individual elements of the wider 'system'
and the means by which a new sense of order re-establishes itself (Russell and Faulkner 2004;
Zahra and Ryan 2007). The focus on self-organization and self-renewal are commonplace
for many collaborative arrangements as the highly case-specifi c context of collaboration
affi rms itself. As discussed previously, although this has yet to happen in the context of inter-
national airline alliances, the current economic challenges around the world are such that
many of the smaller airlines are beginning to be severely challenged by threats in the external
environment.
Despite what on the surface appears to be limited opportunity for learning, the complexity,
dynamism, signifi cance and reach of collaboration across the wider tourism industry is such that
there remains much scope for the further scrutiny of collaboration and its raft of theoretical
explanations. Where there is more consensus, however, is in our understanding of the process of
collaboration generally, and in the motives for and various types and stages of collaboration as
discussed in the section that follows.
Motivations and typologies of collaboration
In exploring the process of collaboration, the logical starting point rests with an exploration of
the motives that drive individuals and organizations to collaborate in the fi rst place. The study
undertaken by Beverland and Brotherton (2001) still carries considerable weight with the
motivations for inter-organizational collaboration being broken down into eight groupings,
namely: market entry and market position-related motives; product-related motives; product/
market-related motives; market structure modifi cation-related motives; market entry timing-
related motives; resource use effi ciency-related motives; resource extension and risk reduction-
related motives; skills enhancement-related motives. Although comprehensive, their study
possibly underscores the predominance of market-related motivations evident across the tourism
industry. In addition to its inherent complexity, fragmentation and high levels of interdependency,
and the turbulence evident in the external environment (particularly with regard to crises and
disasters that are now seemingly omnipresent across tourism), it is perhaps no surprise that
collaboration is such a strong feature of tourism. What is a surprise perhaps is the increase in
market-related motivations where collaboration is proving to be a valuable strategy for market
access, especially in international markets, allowing fi rms to build and expand customer bases for
purposes of relationship marketing, defending existing market positioning and enhancing future
market positioning (Fyall and Garrod 2005). For many organizations with limited resources,
collaboration often represents a more cost-effective way of progressing rather than seeking
fi nance for organic growth. That said, for most organizations, and especially airlines, preference
would still be to 'go it alone', resource endowments permitting.
