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the need for reciprocity in the search for joint benefi ts (Macaulay 1963; Dwyer, Shurr and Oh
1987). The main contrasting feature between relational and resource-based approaches is that
they are built on the formation of social and interpersonal relationships rather than the conduct
of transactions, a scenario which makes self-serving behaviour more transparent and, therefore,
less likely. One challenging outcome of such an approach, however, is the extent to which
organizational boundaries become blurred. Although a particular challenge for destinations,
boundary-creep is also an issue for other sectors of the tourism industry with notable issues for
strategic international airline alliances as to what systems, policies, marketing and brands are
adopted for the collaborative good.
One of the key relational-based theories is stakeholder theory which is predicated on
organizations having a range of stakeholders which can affect or be affected by the achievement
of an organization's objectives (Freeman 1984). With its focus on management decision making,
stakeholder theory advocates that stakeholder relationships in part determine outcomes for both
the organization and its stakeholders with the interests of all stakeholder groups demonstrating
equal value. Two issues of relevance here though are those of salience and legitimacy. While the
fi rst relates to all stakeholders being treated equally, the latter relates to how a particular
stakeholder is able to impact the organization's decision-making, much of which will depend on
their power within the group (Friedman and Miles 2002).
Although also relational in nature, network theory explores the complexity of relationships
between individuals, groups and organizations in a designated space such as a destination or
airline alliance (Mouge and Contractor 2003). Emphasis here is primarily on information fl ows
and what Christopher, Payne and Ballantyne (2002) refer to as 'network competition', whereby
organizations compete through relational networks rather than as stand-alone organizations in
search of customer 'value'. As such, the 'value' for passengers travelling with an international
airline alliance may include seamless service, connectivity and pricing convergence along with
the considerable benefi ts to be achieved from an alliance-wide frequent fl yer programme. As
with all relational approaches to collaboration, trust is a critical component as advocated recently
by Erkuz-Ozturk and Eraydin (2010). One relational approach gaining credence as an explanatory
theory in the wider literature is that of game theory whereby a 'set of players carries out a set of
moves and attains payoffs for each combination of moves' (Beritelli 2011: 4). The purpose of such
a theory is to gain an improved understanding of both organizational and human behaviour with
the success of one component dependent on the choices of another (Jafari 2000; Fennell 2006;
Zhang, Song, Huang and Chen 2010). Of relevance to international airline alliances is the
potential for one airline to cut or change its route network to the detriment of others in the
collaborative grouping. Game theory would thus serve as an ideal means by which to understand
the potential implications of such a unilateral action and the consequent reshaping of the
collaborative relationships of existing, and potentially new members.
Politics-based theories
Politics-based theories, meanwhile, demonstrate a slightly different focus in that the balance of
power among individuals and organizations is key to understanding their collaborative motiva-
tions and dynamics and the consequent distribution, or uneven distribution, of collaboration
benefi ts (Keohane and Nye 1977; Gray and Wood 1991; Kelly 2006). The theory of power rela-
tions is viewed as integral to the understanding of collaborative efforts (Reed 1997) while Jamal
and Getz (1995) believe that issues of power and authority need to be considered at each stage
of collaboration as a means to ensure equity and fairness. One legitimate concern with political
theories in general, however, is the view that governance institutions always have, and always will
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