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looked at CEPC levels after exercise (
Rehman et al., 2004
). Whereas G-CSF
levels were raised after exercise, GM-CSF levels were lowered.
2.4.4 TNF-alpha
Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-
) has several differential effects on
EPC. The expected effect of apoptosis due to administration of TNF-
a
a
was seen, as well as reduced EPC proliferation, migration, adhesion, tube
formation capacity, iNOS and eNOS in concentration- and time-
dependent manner (
Chen et al., 2011b; Xu et al., 2011
). Contradictory
to these
in vitro
findings, a clinical study that looked at patients with pre-
eclampsia found that some factors including TNF-
a
stimulated EPC prolif-
eration (
Matsubara et al., 2006
).
2.4.5 Other cytokines and hormones
2.4.5.1 Erythropoietin
Erythropoietin has been described to mobilize EPC into PB. This has been
described in healthy subjects, after physical training as well as after hypoxic
events (
Hirata et al., 2006; Hohenstein et al., 2010; Steiner et al., 2005; Yip
et al., 2011
).
2.4.5.2 Estradiol
The concrete mechanism of estradiol on EPC is not clear but the work of
Iwakura et al. (2003)
has demonstrated that estradiol accelerates
reendothelialization and attenuates medial thickening after carotid injury by
augmenting mobilization and proliferation of BM-EPCs and their incorpora-
tion into the recovering endothelium at the site of injury. Further, estradiol
enhances recovery after myocardial infarction (MI) by augmenting the incor-
poration of BM-EPCs into sites of ischemia-induced neovascularization,
which is mediated via eNOS-activation of matrix metalloproteinase-9
(
Iwakura et al., 2006
).
2.4.5.3 MIF
It is widely accepted that EPCs promote angiogenesis and vasculogenesis by
virtue of the release of paracrine angiogenic factors which they carry with
them as cargo. One of these angiogenic factors and a recent focus of interest
in EPC research is the pleiotropic cytokine MIF which also—contrary to its
historic name—exhibits chemokine-like functions.
Based on the recent discovery that MIF exhibits chemokine-like func-
tions and interacts as a noncognate ligand of the CXC chemokine receptor
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