Travel Reference
In-Depth Information
Bubble' concept was later developed by Judd and Fainstein (1999), representing an isolated
theme park within a city, insulated from dangers and inconveniences such as crime, poverty,
dirt, dereliction or social problems. Mellor (1991) and later Spirou (2008) evaluated one such
tourist bubble - the Albert Dock in Liverpool (UK). This regenerated waterfront district,
which for years was a derelict nineteenth-century dock, was renovated in the 1980s. It now
consists of a large group of listed buildings, incorporating attractions such as the Tate Gallery,
Merseyside Maritime Museum, and the Beatles Story attraction.
Another important focus for functional studies of urban tourism relates to urban tourism
strategies. From early urban tourism textbooks (e.g. Law, 1993; Page, 1995), to individual
case studies (e.g. Coles 2003), there has been an interest in strategies to develop and promote
urban tourism. The economic development rationale for urban tourism strategies was exam-
ined by Judd (1995). Strategies manipulate both the product, often through urban regenera-
tion; and promotion in order to communicate the attractiveness and uniqueness of the
destination to target market segments. Increasingly, urban tourism strategies are linked to
bids for 'hallmark events', such as the Olympic Games (see Veal, 2002). The city of Liverpool
(UK) embraced this approach with its successful bid and subsequent hosting of European
Capital of Culture 2008. There has also been a trend towards public-private partnerships,
such as in Homebush Bay, the main location for the Sydney Olympic and Paralympic Games.
The successes and controversies of the event were examined by Cashman (2006).
Law (1996) provides an overview of place marketing in major cities, whilst Paddison
(1993) provides a perceptive critical evaluation of marketing Glasgow (Scotland) as City of
Culture 1990. Paddison (1993) illustrated the contested nature of place promotional images,
as less privileged groups within the city struggled to identify with the gentrifi ed and arts/
culture-based representations inherent in the rebranding. Seminal evaluations of place
promotion by geographers include Burgess (1982, 1990), Burgess and Wood (1988) and
Burgess and Gold (1995). Early studies revealed a progression towards more sophisticated
promotional techniques, from glossy brochures to the targeting of key decision-makers and
opinion-formers. The majority of such studies reveal an emphasis on lively, exciting, cosmo-
politan, gentrifi ed urban lifestyles, although Bramwell and Rawding (1996) also revealed
differences in the positioning of UK cities. Bramwell and Rawding (1994) also demonstrate
the importance of a coordinated promotional effort between the various agencies of promo-
tion, in order to avoid a contradictory 'shadow effect'.
Burgess (1990) highlighted not only the displacement of working-class communities to
develop urban tourism in London's East Docklands, but also a re-imaging that manipulated
an 'East End' already represented in television programmes. Authors such as Ashworth and
Voogd (1990) illustrated how decisions concerning the place promotional mix can signifi -
cantly infl uence the credibility of the message as perceived by consumers. It would seem that
unoffi cial organic images, particularly from the mass media, may be perceived as much more
credible than the 'induced' image of place promotion. Indeed, Fretter (1993) argued that this
is exacerbated when destination marketing organisations fail to take a strategic approach to
positioning.
Human geographers have also contributed to a functional understanding of urban tourism
through focusing on the urban tourism product. Rogerson (2002d) provides a case study of
Johannesburg (South Africa), whilst Coles (2003) focuses on Leipzig (Germany). Judd (1995)
discusses how US cities have increasingly embraced the revitalisation of post-industrial areas
through the development of the conference and convention market. Judd (1995) also demon-
strates how cities around the world have developed 'carousal' zones of retail, leisure and
entertainment. Richards (1996) and Richards and Wilson (2007a) highlighted the role of
