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the state designated (often called 'substantially owned and effectively controlled'), some
models of open skies arrangements between two countries adopt more liberal approaches,
including 'Principle Place of Business' or 'Place of Incorporation'. For example, Australian
airlines operating internationally must not have voting shares of more than 49 per cent
vested in foreign nationals. Domestic airlines in Australia, however, may have substantial
ownership and effective control in other countries. Tiger Airways Australia Pty Limited, for
example, is an Australian-incorporated airline that operates domestic routes only, but is
effectively controlled in Singapore as it is a 100 per cent subsidiary of Tiger Airways Holdings
Limited, which itself has Singapore Airlines as a substantial shareholder. This restricts Tiger
Airways Australia from operating stand-alone point-to-point services across the Tasman
Sea to New Zealand (a lucrative and highly competitive market) because, given the
agreement between Australia and New Zealand, such operations must be performed by
carriers that are substantially owned and effectively controlled by nationals of either Australia
or New Zealand.
In general, open skies as a means of liberal trade in air services are designed to stimulate
demand for access. Many countries and regions have embraced open skies positions in air
service negotiations, including the United States/Canada, the European Union (which
adopted liberalisation policies in the early 1990s; see Doganis, 1994), the EU/US and poten-
tially the ASEAN over the next few years. The positive implications for tourism are clear:
liberal access raises the potential for increased access and connectivity (see e.g. Warnock-
Smith and Morell, 2008). More negatively, however, such openness may result in visitors in
key markets deriving more utility from visiting other destinations which may become
available.
An agenda for future research
We have argued that access and politics play an important role in the provision of air trans-
port. This in turn has implications for tourist fl ows and the viability of tourism sectors in
many destinations. We next address further research opportunities that explore how the crit-
ical political and geographic issues facing air transport today could have implications for
access and, by extension, destination performance.
Technological innovations
Aircraft technology is a key factor shaping the spatial pattern of tourism development.
With the development of long-haul aircraft, major hubs in the developed economies can
be accessed either direct or via a stopover. Hubs such as Singapore and Dubai, along with
several other hubs in the respective global regions, are key centres for sixth freedom opera-
tions by various airlines and act as fulcra for funnelling long-haul passengers from region
to region. A catalyst for change in the air transport network in the future, which could have
consequential effects for passenger fl ows, is the impact of a new generation of aircraft (e.g.
Boeing 787 and Airbus A380 and A350). Longer-range aircraft (such as the B787) could
result in more point-to-point services, thus altering the shape of global and regional passenger
movements.
Furthermore, how these new generation aircraft are integrated into an airline's fl eet may
also have implications for market share, pricing and route development (Mason, 2007), all of
which have implications for tourism. The politics of air access create barriers in achieving the
most effective and effi cient combination of aircraft. Useful future contributions should
 
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