Travel Reference
In-Depth Information
guidebook series for independent travellers, the Rough Guides and the Lonely Planet series,
which collectively sell six million copies per annum, are now trying to change attitudes to
'casual fl ying' (Barkham, 2006). Although in market competition, the editors of these series
of guides are taking the same stance on fl ying. Alongside providing information on less
environmentally damaging travel options than air travel where possible, other suggested
behavioural changes to reduce negative environmental impacts include fl ying less but staying
longer in destinations, and the donation of money to carbon offsetting schemes. A more chal-
lenging environmental discourse to aviation comes from the
Ecologist
magazine, which advo-
cates that air travel advertising should carry health warnings similar to smoking (Thornton,
2007). This represents an imaginative discourse, bringing the environment into the heart of
the market by challenging travellers to refl ect upon their actions and their environmental
values.
The environmental education of tourism stakeholders has a role to play in any variant of
environmental discourse. For example, the rationale for the employment of fi scal resources
for the mitigation of the negative environmental impacts of tourism needs to be understood
to have a chance of acceptance. Without this comprehension, there is likely to be little chance
of support from stakeholders, as was the case in 2002 when the Balearic Islands government
legislated to place an economic tax on tourism to fund environmental conservation. Following
the election of the centre-right Popular Party a year later, the tax was rescinded, much to the
delight of foreign tour operators and the Balearics' business community, the majority of
whom were opposed to the scheme (Templeton, 2003). This opposition was founded upon
reduced demand following the imposition of the tax caused by tourists choosing to visit
competing destinations offering a more competitive price.
The case of the Balearics illustrates the importance of the engagement of the tourist in an
environmental discourse. It also illustrates the price elasticity of mass tourism demand,
implying that if market values do in fact represent people's preferences of how to maximise
utility, there would seem to be little concern over the impacts of tourism on the environment.
Without an understanding of the environmental consequences of their fl ight or vacation -
nor the idea that tourism can stand in opposition to the well-being of ecosystems and non-
human life - there exists little likelihood of the emergence of any environmental discourse.
An important component of this education is an understanding of the ethical judgement of
what is 'right' or 'wrong' in decision-making about our behaviour towards the environment.
Inherent to the question of environmental ethics is the degree of recognition of the intrinsic
value of non-human life and the balance between the extension of a right to existence for
non-human life and human interests.
The inclusion of environmental ethics as a component of environmental discourse and
education has the potential to change tourist behaviour. Commenting on the role of the
general awakening of interest in environmental ethics in society, Attenborough (2007) makes
a comparison to the ethical shift in how slavery was perceived 200 years ago. He suggests that
it will be very diffi cult to impose limits on people's behaviour, such as the freedom to fl y,
without individuals possessing a stronger environmental ethic.
Leopold (1949) in his seminal 'land-ethic' made reference to the loss of solitude in nature
because the travel trade now gave access to nature in bulk, while Holden (2003, 2009) and
Macbeth (2005) have emphasised the relevance of an understanding of the ethical issues of the
environment to tourism policy and practice. Holden (ibid.) stresses the need for a non-rationalised
approach to valuing nature from tourism stakeholders, while Macbeth (2005) emphasises the
requirement for tourism policy-makers - and, it may be added, all stakeholders - to have a
refl exive understanding of ethical issues of the environment in practice.
