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many early retirees, who saw the potential of a better lifestyle by moving abroad (Williams
et al.
, 2000).
International retirement migration in Europe
Within Europe, amenity movements have typically originated in northern and central coun-
tries (i.e. United Kingdom, Germany, Scandinavian countries), while southern countries, as
well as inland France and Italy, have been the main destinations (e.g. Spain, Portugal, Greece,
Malta). Although the number of those who choose to migrate internationally once they reach
retirement age is not as high as other forms of mobility, today's older people have above-
average opportunities for international travel. They have the resources, are not restricted by
employment obligations and the majority have neither dependent children nor parents in
need of daily personal care. These amenity-led migrants are primarily motivated by the desire
to engage in a more satisfying way of life, and in order to do so they search for new spaces that
will provide them with more opportunities to enjoy their post-retirement lives. Typically,
these migrants are mostly couples in their fi fties and sixties with no dependants who sold their
home in their country of origin to buy another property in a southern European region and
who have had previous experiences of working or living abroad. The purchasing of foreign
properties can then be seen as a conscious element of a fi nancial strategy for maximising
material well-being in later life (Casado-Diaz
et al.
, 2004).
Many surveys analysing the attitudes, experiences and decision-making amongst interna-
tional retirement migrants to Southern Europe suggest that for most retirees the Mediterranean
climate was the main pull factor explaining their decision to relocate elsewhere (Casado-Diaz
et al.
, 2004). A warmer and milder climate, particularly during the winter months, and the
general health-related benefi ts associated with it, allows them to carry out a more active lifestyle
and to pursue a healthier pace of life. Equally important for many older migrants were the
considerable fi nancial advantages associated with moving to southern Europe, principally the
relatively lower cost of living and housing (King
et al.
, 2000). Similar results have been reported
for other non-European retirement destinations (Bell and Ward, 2000; Dixon
et al.
, 2006;
Longino and Warnes, 2004; Stimson and Minnery, 1998). The high levels of satisfaction with
the move described in most surveys suggest a general sense of achievement/success regarding
their decision to migrate to a warmer region in their later life in search of a better lifestyle
(Casado-Diaz
et al.
, 2004). European older migrants have generally adopted a 'leisure lifestyle'
and enjoyed the presence of a vibrant expatriate community, particularly in the Mediterranean
coast and islands. For many older residents, social life takes place within social networks and
communities organised according to national origin and with few contacts with local (Spanish)
inhabitants (Casado-Diaz
et al.
, 2004; Casado-Diaz, 2006; Huber and O'Reilly, 2004; O'Reilly,
2000). Although retirees moving from northern to southern Europe share many similarities, it
has become evident that the forms and consequences of IRM are uneven and are also contin-
gent on place and nationality. The heterogeneity of IRM and the reported differences between
destinations and between nationalities (Casado-Diaz, 2006) highlight the need for more in
depth research on the fi eld.
Researching international retirement migration:
methodological and conceptual refl ections
Studies of later-life migration have had a long tradition in the United States, examining the
fl ows of 'snowbirds' from the northern estates and from Canada towards US sunbelt
