Sustainable Mountain Development - Mountain Geography: Physical and Human Dimensions - page 604

Though practices to minimize impacts of construction, restore damaged vegetation, and
secure slope stability exist, their application often increases construction and main-
tenance costs, which are already higher in mountain areas than in the lowlands, due
to natural hazards and difficult topography, which are key determinants of the cost
of transportation networks (Ramcharan 2009). While these costs are often prohibitive
for poorer mountain countries, affordable approaches such as labor-intensive road con-
struction often have great potential: Costs are lower than when heavy machinery is
used, and much more of the investment is retained within mountains as wages for loc-
al labor. In Ethiopia, for example, this share was typically between 30 and 40 percent
of total road construction costs. Labor-intensive methods also cause less environmental
damage than construction by heavy machinery (Hartmann 2001; Schaffner and Schaffn-
er 2001; Fig. 12.3).
FIGURE 12.3 Construction of a stone sub-base layer in Tigray in the Ethiopian highlands for a rural
access road. Labor-based road construction, such as that shown in this photo, is less expensive
than machine-based construction, generates much higher income for local labor, and inflicts less
damage on fragile mountain environment. (Photo by U. Schaffner.)
OTHER MEANS OF ACCESS
Where railroads and roads are not economic, other technologies better adapted to dis-
sected terrain and lower transport volume—typical traits of mountain transport in many
places—such as ropeways, suspension bridges for footpaths (people and animal trans-
port), or air transport can provide links. In Nepal, over 1,000 suspension and suspended
bridges provide access to previously isolated settlements (Gaehwiler and Lamichaney
2001). Ropeways, of which over 10,000 are in operation, mostly in industrialized coun-
tries, and mainly in tourist areas, have great potential for hauling goods and people in
mountains (Nikšić et al. 2010), but are not adequately reflected in development policies.
Typically, construction and maintenance costs are lower than for roads, especially for