Multiscale Modeling of Ligaments and Tendons - Multiscale Computer Modeling in Biomechanics and Biomedical Engineering - page 114

Fig. 5 Although there are conflicting reports, it appears that the stiffness of ligament and tendon
tissue constituents increases with decreasing scale

Table 1 Mechanical testing of ligaments and tendons has been performed at multiple scales

Scale Studies Methods Key Findings

Macro [ 55 , 133 , 147 , 234 ,

241 , 250 ]

Tensile testing Anisotropic, nonlinear

mechanical behavior

Shear testing Large viscoelastic response

Viscoelastic testing Spatially inhomogeneous strain

field

Meso [ 16 , 96 , 107 , 126 ,

250 ]

Subdivision of tendon Scale dependent stiffness

Isolation of single fascicles Scale dependent viscoelasticity

Severing fascicles within intact
tissue

Weak shear coupling between
fascicles
Fascicles are loaded unevenly

Micro [ 89 , 162 , 198 - 202 ] Isolation of single fibers Spatially inhomogeneous

deformation

Confocal imaging of strained
tendon fascicles Large inter-fiber sliding

Micro strain less than macro
strain
Microscale mechanisms of
viscoelasticity

Nano Testing isolated fibrils Fibrils are stiffer than

macroscale tissue
AFM of strained fibrils Fibrils are viscoelastic
X-ray diffraction Fibril strain less than
macroscopic strain
Summarized in this table are representative studies for each scale level, the test methods used and
some key findings

[ 190 , 222 , 228 , 239 ,
251 ]