Geoscience Reference
In-Depth Information
1998, Holmes and Janes, this volume) and in
several restoration schemes, such as the Upper
Wharfedale Project in Yorkshire (McDonald
et al
.,
2004; Newson and Chalk, 2004). In contrast, inter-
disciplinary research still requires considerable and
fundamental attention today (Vaughan
et al
., 2009;
Newson, 2010). Most importantly, river restoration
projects in the 1990s operated at the site level, a
legacy of engineering tradition, rather than at the
landscape scale advocated subsequently by river
catchment ecologists.
Responding to these initial weaknesses has
been particularly important in moving 'catchment
consciousness' from a purely nature conservation
locus within river management organizations
to core engineering disciplines such as water
resource management and flood defence; these
disciplines were associated with much larger
budgets, longer tradition and in some cases,
restrictive practices (Newson, 2009). The challenge
for catchment consciousness has subsequently been
compounded by the even more daunting need
to include land management practice as well.
Recent disagreements over flow allocation between
water resources and fisheries management interests
illustrate the scale of the challenge and the intensity
of
in spite of increasing evidence (and use) of habitat
management as the most sustainable way to
improve recruitment and breeding. Management
of river water quality has, however, moved from
the end-of-pipe technological fix approach of
tackling pollution, to action dealing with source
control and catchment-scale diffuse problems
such as nutrients and pesticide input. Nitrate
Vulnerable Zones and agri-environment financial
incentives for land managers represent a major
change in direction, supported by legislation
including the Nitrates Directive (Council of the
European Communities, 1991) and in particular
the WFD which puts catchment-scale management
and ecological quality objectives as the central
pillars of its approach (Council of the European
Communities, 2000). One of the remaining
blockages to extending water management from
the channel to incorporate the land influencing
river quality is cost. Applying what is effectively a
precautionary policy to large tracts of land is very
expensive. Consequently, a 'hot-spot' approach
to identifying and solving local problems is the
most likely way to improve the relevance and
cost-effectiveness of catchment measures (Newson,
2010).
Since the 1970s, but particularly during the 20
years since 1990, 'land drainage' in England and
Wales has been replaced in approach, legislation,
policy and terminology by 'flood defence'
and more recently 'flood risk management'
(Fleming, 2002; Johnson
et al
., 2005). The
previous hard engineering 'scene of impact'
approach - often done at great initial expense
but also requiring costly, ecologically harmful,
maintenance work - has changed, through a brief
phase of collateral funding for environmental
improvements, to the current position in which
'natural flood management' and catchment-scale
flood management plans are now the main
focus (Ramsbottom and Packham, 2004). The
ironic and costly situation of draining land and
having to protect people and property further
downstream from the resulting runoff has now
been appreciated by urban developers. Flood risk
management is now an important consideration
in the Town and Country Planning system. For
debates
about
the
balance
between
human
interests
and
those
of
wildlife
(Acreman
and
Dunbar, 2004).
Prior to the unifying efforts encouraged by
recent European legislation, notably the Water
Framework Directive (WFD; Council of the
European Communities, 2000), the multi-
functional nature of river management required
boldness and foresight by those promoting
a 'systems' approach rather than traditional
engineering solutions (Large, this volume). For
example, dam construction was a favoured
solution in water resource planning in 1990,
but alternatives such as leakage control, demand
management and wastewater treatment are
now preferred - a change of philosophy that
nevertheless still retains a mainly technological
solution. Fisheries management still adheres to
much of its traditional stocking philosophy that
was originally adopted in response to demand from
anglers and as a remedy to pollution damage; this,
