Geoscience Reference
In-Depth Information
environmental and social costs (Porritt, 2005;
Everard, 2009b). Other ecosystem services now
have emerging markets, such as climate regulation
in the UK (i.e. the Climate Change Levy http://
www.decc.gov.uk/en/content/cms/what we do/
change energy/tackling clima/ccas/cc levy/cc levy
.aspx), Europe (the Emissions Trading Scheme
ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/ets/index en.htm) and
globally (such as REDD
effectively
to
societal
benefits
beyond
those
traditionally considered as 'environmental'.
In a review of the nature and state of
development of PES markets, the OECD (2010)
estimates that there are around 300 such
schemes established around the world, while
the Department for Environment, Food and Rural
Affairs is promoting the approach in England
(Defra, 2010a). PES schemes and other market
mechanisms will undoubtedly continue to evolve
to address more ecosystem services in decision-
making, including evident beneficial opportunities
for health, access and recreation, fisheries and
other
+
under the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change,
http://www.unfccc.int). In some instances, agri-
environment and other subsidies already serve as
crude 'markets' with public taxation channelled
into payments targeted at more sensitive land-use
to increase public benefits such as biodiversity,
landscape and sometimes water yield (Everard
and Appleby, 2009). However, markets for most
ecosystem services such as pollination, nutrient
cycling, water purification and storm regulation
are currently missing.
In future, 'Paying for ecosystem services' (PES)
schemes should offer considerable potential to
safeguard important ecosystem services, because
they develop markets to connect service providers
(which may include land managers affecting the
production of services) with buyers who benefit
from them (OECD, 2010). Markets therefore
provide a powerful means to bring human inter-
dependency with ecosystems into the mainstream
of policy and practice (TEEB, 2010).
Identification of values, or at least semi-
quantified significance, for many currently non-
marketed services in the case studies highlights the
potential role of PES or other market mechanisms
to address more ecosystem services in decision-
making. The Tamar and Alkborough Flats case
studies suggest that evidence/knowledge gaps can
limit or compromise the ability to value benefits
such as fish recruitment, air quality enhancement
and all aspects of climate regulation. Valuation
is also not possible where economic techniques
have yet to be developed (Turner
et al
., 2008).
There are also potentially significant 'missing
markets' for health and amenity improvements
projected
broader
interests
to
invest
in
ecosystem
enhancement.
7. Systemic perspectives should be
built into management tools
If the ecosystem services approach is to be
implemented in practice, appropriate tools are
required to avoid the shortfalls of narrow,
fragmented disciplinary thinking and regulation,
institutional structures and associated budgets.
Examples include new tools for screening
development plans in South Africa (Diederichs
et al
., 2002). There are also opportunities to add
an ecosystem services perspective to existing tools
such as Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
and Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA),
and the derivation of programmes of measures
under the EC Water Framework Directive
(http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-
framework/index en.html). This review suggests
that improvements are not only feasible but
also likely to contribute to more sustainable and
equitable environmental outcomes, particularly for
river and wetland conservation and management.
PES and other market mechanisms may assist
this by valuing more ecosystem services in
terms relevant to many current decision-making
processes. Beyond the ethical, economic and
environmental cases for embedding an ecosystems
approach there are also requirements for doing
so,
in
the
urban
Mayesbrook
Park
and
such
as
those
within
the
UK
government
east
of
England
case
studies,
suggesting
that
ecosystem
services
action
plan
(Defra,
2007b,
environmental
investment
can
contribute
cost-
2010b).
