Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
interests (often with a national partner within or close to the national government), the
money goes to the government, and the new investors can extract what they please from
the land and people. While some countries have used portions of these payments to
provide stipends to the poor, such poverty reduction does not produce local development
nor is it sustainable once the resource of land, minerals, and/or water are depleted.
De Schutter (2011) is extremely cautious about FDI in land. He points out that
giving land away to investors who have better access to capital to “develop” implies
huge opportunity costs. As a result, a type of farming is brought in that has much less
powerful poverty-reducing impacts than if access to land and water were improved
for the local farming communities. This type of FDI farming directs agriculture
toward crops for export markets, increasing the vulnerability to price shocks of
the target countries. Even where titling schemes seek to protect land users from
eviction, individual titling accelerates the development of a market for land rights
with potentially destructive effects on the livelihoods of the current land users that
will face increased commercial pressure on land and on groups that depend on the
commons—grazing and fishing grounds and forests.
Africa is faced with continuing mean temperature increases. Rising temperatures
impact the water cycle, with more extreme storms and longer periods between rains.
While total precipitation remains the same, local men and women perceive that there
is a decline in rainfall. Increases in temperature result in more rapid rates of evapo-
transpiration, which makes the water seem scarcer despite systematic measure-
ments showing no change in total precipitation (Kassie et al. 2013). Other significant
extreme weather events include droughts, floods, freezes, and hail, all of which can
damage crops, animals, and soils. They also result in an increased number of bac-
teria and pests. These changes are particularly felt by smallholders and pastoralists.
Moreover, in these groups, the most vulnerable are women and children.
13.2 COMMUNITY CAPITALS AND CLIMATE CHANGE
The Community Capitals Framework (CCF) is a useful tool for analyzing the con-
text and process of social change, and has been used in the context of development
in the United States and Latin America (Cepeda Gómez et al. 2008; Gasteyer and
Araj 2009; Ashwill et al. 2011; Flora and Bregendahl 2012; Flora and Delaney 2012;
Flora and Flora 2013; Pigg et al. 2013; Siles et al. 2013). The CCF defines “capital” as
resources invested to create new resources over a long time frame. It was developed
to show that many resources are needed to achieve a healthy ecosystem, social inclu-
sion, and economic security for all people (see Figure 13.1).
Capitals in this framework are viewed as collective resources, not just individ-
ual property. The capitals are shown in a particular order, with Natural Capital,
the natural environment, being the first and the basis for all the others. Next is
Cultural Capital, which is the belief system that links people to their environment
and each other by connecting the seen and the unseen. Human Capital encompasses
the attributes of human beings, including education, abilities, health, and self-
esteem. These attributes are determined by structural factors, but are part of each
human actor. Social Capital includes the relationships that link people to each other
through groups. Social capital can be ties of trust and reciprocity within a group or
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