Agriculture Reference
In-Depth Information
6.3 SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF
INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE
Although less developed countries have seen marked intensification of agriculture in
the 20th century, the pace and motivations of intensive farming have varied consid-
erably across nations and regions. For instance, shifting cultivation, a practice fea-
sible only under low population pressure and low demands on the land resource, has
been gradually replaced by sedentary agriculture in parts of Asia such as Malaysia,
Thailand, and Indonesia (Rasul and Thapa 2003). However, in other countries, such
as India, Laos, Bangladesh, and Nepal, it still continues despite increasing popula-
tion pressures and demands on the land resource base. Rasul and Thapa (2003) point
out that a change in agricultural practices does not occur automatically as a result
of population pressure (as postulated by Boserup 1965), but requires reinforcement
by factors such as land ownership, infrastructure development, government policies,
and support systems and facilities.
In Bangladesh, a country facing extreme population pressure and land shortage,
farmers adopt both subsistence and market-oriented production strategies depending
on the particular set of circumstances they face involving land holding size, environ-
mental constraints, and technology available (Turner and Shajaat Ali 1996). Although
from 1950 to 1986, the proportion of landless farmers increased, on average, small-
holder farms were able to keep pace with demand. Agricultural changes occurred in
a step fashion with periods of intensification giving way to involution or stagnation.
Nonetheless, the average response to increase in agricultural demands was to increase
land productivity through increased cropping frequency, higher yields, or higher vol-
umes of crops. Practically all farmers adopted some level of market production to meet
their own as well as societal needs (Turner and Shajaat Ali 1996).
Nepal also saw a progression toward market-driven production systems as a
result of increased access to markets owing to the development of roads and rural
infrastructure, as well as expansion of peri-urban areas (Brown and Shrestha 2000).
Multiple cropping incorporating high-value crops and vegetables where irrigation
is available and expansion of agriculture to steep upland areas have raised concerns
about land degradation. Management and conservation options, such as improved
composting, nitrogen-fixing plants, liming, and increasing crop water use efficiency,
implemented through adequate extension and technical support, are believed to be
key to preventing resource degradation (Brown and Shrestha 2000; Dahal et al.
2009). Indeed, Thapa and Paudel (2002) found that, of two western watersheds in
Nepal undergoing degradation due to soil erosion, fertility depletion, and landslides,
the one having external interventions showed less severe land degradation. Here,
watershed management projects had promoted soil conservation practices to coun-
ter anthropogenic causes of land degradation. In another study, Paudel and Thapa
(2004) reported that the adoption of structural and biological measures to control
land degradation depended on factors such as the ethnicity of farmers, farm labor,
soil type on land holding, education level, and land management training. However,
they noted that the most influential factor for the adoption of technology was the
availability of extension services.
