Planning and Developing Trails and Routes - Tourism and Trails: Cultural, Ecological and Management Issues - page 199

relationship with the satisfaction and safety of trail use by cyclists, cross-
country skiers, hikers and joggers (Allton & Lieber, 1983). In general, hikers
and joggers prefer a woodchip or dirt surface, while bicyclists prefer paved
trails (Lieber & Allton, 1983). Likewise, existing trails that are being
revamped or newly-built trails can use 'hardening' to minimize the effect
both of natural deterioration and visitor-induced wear and tear on archaeo-
logical artifacts, material culture and natural landscapes (Cubit & McArthur,
1995; Johanson & Olsen, 2010). Even though such efforts can be prohibitively
expensive in some cases, the long-term protection of the trails and their adja-
cent soils is very important in ensuring the longevity of the resource (Brown
& Barter, 2004; Chavez, 1996; Farrell & Marion, 2001; Revitt & Sanders,
2002; Wallin & Harden, 1996).
Trail hardening or softening can also act as a deliberate management
response to address impacts occurring on more sensitive landscapes (see Hall
& Lew, 2009). As noted above it can take many forms, ranging from where
the natural surface features are temporarily altered by putting down gravel,
to more dramatic measures where surfaces are permanently changed and
made artificial through the use of tarmac. A common approach has also been
to put down boardwalks, often over sensitive ecological areas such as wet-
lands, thereby keeping the physical pressure off the natural environment,
reducing the threat of trampling, soil compaction as a result of congestion
and avoiding possible vegetation loss. The danger is that sacrificial sites, or,
in this case, trails are designed to take on more impact than others. Further
to this is the possibility that the hardened site/trail is used to market the area
strategically, thereby increasing the likelihood of higher levels of use.
Hardening has often been favored over shifting use to other less frequented
areas (Marion & Leung, 2004).
While acknowledging the 'management' response to using hardening as
a supply-driven technique, it is highlighted in this chapter as a key aspect in
how a trail or route is deliberately designed in anticipation of high levels of
use and impact. The case study below outlines the extent to which trail
hardening is a deliberate action in the design of nature trails within areas of
Acadia National Park, USA.
Case Study: Trail Hardening in Acadia National Park
One consequence of site hardening that has received limited attention is
the impact that changes to natural settings have on the overall visitor
experience (Manning, 1999; Bullock & Lawson, 2007). To what extent
do visitors accept altered settings, where the trails are less natural in
appearance and where they see the changes as artificial or visually obtru-
sive? Cahill et al. (2008) studied visitor acceptance of trail hardening
( Continued )