Tourism, Recreation and Trail Impacts - Tourism and Trails: Cultural, Ecological and Management Issues - page 136

of non-native species along trails (Müller et al. , 2004; Nepal & Way, 2007b;
Potito & Beatty, 2005). In Shenandoah National Park, Hall and Kuss (1989)
discovered that new species diversity increased toward the trail 80% of the
time from disturbed soils but also because of the openness of the trail itself,
which allowed more sunshine to penetrate trail margins and create more
robust growing environments for invasive species. They conclude that
'trampling may cause increased species diversity in areas that would nor-
mally be dominated by a single species and function much the same as a
predator in fauna studies' (Hall & Kuss, 1989: 224).
In most cases, garbage and other waste materials are most prevalent at
trailside camp areas (Jones, 2001), although it can be found all along trails
everywhere (Basnet, 1993). Not only is it aesthetically unpleasant, it also
results in direct and indirect physical impacts. Litter directly disturbs vegeta-
tion when it is dumped on grasses, moss or other flora. The deterioration
process of plastics, metal or paper products negatively affects soil nutrients
and plant composition and is in some cases toxic to the plants.
Wildlife
Like other elements of the natural or physical environment, the use of
routes and trails can result in serious changes to wildlife (Chettri et al. , 2001;
Griffiths & van Schaik, 1993; Omphile & Powell, 2002). Several transforma-
tions in animal behavior can be identified that are directly related to routes
and trails. The first is feeding patterns. The decrease in plant growth or the
intrusion of invasive species as noted in the last section may result in an
area's fauna moving elsewhere in search of its traditional diet (Griffiths &
van Schaik, 1993; Meaney et al. , 2002). Although some species move on,
others become habituated to their new feeding environment (Griffiths & van
Schaik, 1993). This may be especially disconcerting when they adapt to
being fed by tourists (Figure 5.4).
The second change affects animal habitats and breeding grounds.
Wilderness and trail recreation has been shown to cause brown bears and
bighorn sheep to flee to new habitats, resulting in a decline in populations in
their traditional hunting and mating areas (Jacobs & Schloeder, 1992;
Papouchis et al. , 2001). Recreation trails and other human activity in the wild
affect nesting patterns and nesting success among a variety of bird species
(Miller & Hobbs, 2000). The birds in one study were much more likely to
avoid trails by nesting elsewhere (Miller et al. , 1998, 2001). And, prong-
horns on Antelope Island in the Great Salt Lake were found to have shifted
away from areas in close proximity to trails to higher elevations on the island
to give birth and hide their fawns, but toward positions where there was a
greater risk of predation (Fairbanks & Tullous, 2002).
Third, some animals might even undergo a degree of evolution brought
on by recreation disturbances of their habitats and behaviors. Griffiths and
van Schaik (1993) speculated that some diurnal species may adapt to human