Geology Reference
In-Depth Information
Carannante, G., Cherchi, A., Simone, L. (1995): Chlorozoan
versus foramol lithofacies in Upper Cretaceous rudist lime-
stones. - Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeo-
ecology,
119
, 137-154
Carannante, G., Esteban, M., Milliman, J.D., Simone, L.
(1988): Carbonate lithofacies as paleolatitude indicators:
problems and limitations. - Sedimentary Geology,
60
, 333-
346
Halfar, J., Godinez-Orta, L., Ingle, J.C. (2000): Microfacies
analysis of recent carbonate environments in the South-
ern Gulf of California, Mexico - a model for warm-tem-
perate to subtropical carbonate formation. - Palaios,
15
,
323-342
Hayton, S., Nelson, C.S., Hood, S.D. (1995): A skeletal as-
semblage classification system for non-tropi
cal
carbon-
ate deposits based on New Zealand Cenozoic limestones.
- Sedimentary Geology,
100
, 123-141
Hüneke, H., Joachimski, M., Buggisch, W., Lützner, H.
(2001): Marine carbonate facies in response to climate and
nutrient level: The Upper Carboniferous and Permian of
Central Spitsbergen (Svalbard). - Facies,
45
, 93-136
James, N.P. (1997): The cool-water carbonate depositional
realm. - In: James, N.P., Clarke, A.D. (eds.): Cool-water
carbonates. - SEPM Special Publications,
56
,1-20
Lees, A. (1975): Possible influences of salinity and tempera-
ture on modern shelf carbonate sedimentation. - Marine
Geology,
19
, 159-198
Lees, A., Buller, A.T. (1972): Modern temperate-water and
warm-water shelf carbonate sediments contrasted. - Ma-
rine Geology,
13
, M67-M73
Nelson, C.S. (1988): An introductionary perspective on non-
tropical shelf carbonates. - Sedimentary Geology,
60
, 3-12
Randazzo, A.F., Müller, P., Lelkes. G., Juhász, E., Hámor, T.
(1999): Cool-water limestones of the Pannonian basinal
system, Middle Miocene, Hungary. - Journal of Sedimen-
tary Research,
A69
, 283-293
Schlanger, S.O. (1975): The geographic boundary between
the coral-algal and the bryozoan-algal facies: a paleo-
latitude indicator. - 9th International Congress of
Sedimentology, Nice, 187-193
Simone, L., Carannante, G. (1988): The fate of foramol ('tem-
perate-type') carbonate platforms. - Sedimentary Geol-
ogy,
60
, 347-354
Further reading:
K021 (cold-water carbonates), K171 (wa-
ter temperature)
by high or variable salinity controlling the biotic spec-
trum and producing a 'foramol' association in warm-
water environments (Hallock and Schlager 1986).
(2)
Nutrient control:
A nutrient-surplus caused by
local upwelling can prevent the development of a char-
acteristic chlorozoan biota with corals and calcareous
green algae (Hallock and Schlager 1986). An ancient
example is the foramol facies of the Late Cretaceous
Lacazina
limestone of northern Spain (Gischler et al.
1994).
(3)
Depth control:
One of the major problems in
the use of skeletal grain associations as indicators of
paleoclimatic or paleolatitudinal conditions is the fact
that water temperature changes observed from low to
high latitudes can also be observed with increasing wa-
ter depths (Brookfield 1988; Carannante et al. 1988).
At low latitudes the 15 °C, 10 °C and 5 °C isotherms
used as boundaries between tropical, warm-temperate
and cold-temperate shelf carbonates lie at increasing
water depths beneath the sea surface. As a consequence,
deep-water shelf carbonates formed at low latitudes may
be similar in grain association to shallow-water car-
bonates forming at high latitudes (Beauchamp 1994).
(4)
Transport control and mixing of grain types:
Any evaluation of grain associations of non-tropical
shelf carbonates should take into account the possibil-
ity of up- and downslope transport and resedimentation
of grains on open high-energy shelves or ramps which
are often affected by currents. Particular caution is
needed for grainstones and packstones formed in tem-
perate and cool-water shelves whose composition might
reflect a mixture of grains originating from bathymetri-
cally and climatically different sources or may include
relict grains of different age.
Basics: Grain association analysis
Beauchamp, B. (1994): Permian climatic cooling in the Ca-
nadian Arctic. - Geological Society of America, Special
Paper,
288
, 299-246
Beauchamp, B., Desrochers, A. (1997): Permian warm-to very
cold-water carbonates and cherts in Northwest Pangea. -
In: James, N.P., Clarke, A.D. (eds.): Cool-water carbon-
ates. - SEPM Special Publications,
56
, 327-347
Betzler, C., Brachert, T., Nebelsick, T.C. (1997): The warm
temperate carbonate province. A review of facies, zona-
tions, and deliminations. - Courier Forschungsinstitut
Senckenberg,
201
, 83-99
Brachert, T.C., Hultzsch, N., Knoerich, A.C., Krautworst,
U.M.R., Stückrad, O.M. (2001): Climatic signatures in
shallow-water carbonates: high-resolution stratigraphic
markers in structurally controlled carbonate buildups (Late
Miocene, Southern Spain). - Palaeogeography, Palaeoclima-
tology, Palaeoecology,
175
, 211-237
Brookfield, M.E. (1988): A mid-Ordovician temperate car-
bonate shelf: the Black River and Trenton Limestone
Groups of southern Ontario, Canada. - Sedimentary Ge-
ology,
60
, 137-153
12.3 Assessing Water Depths
In biological and ecological textbooks water depth is
discussed in terms of environmental constraints affect-
ing the organisms or zonation patterns of benthic com-
munities. A separate chapter on water depths is gener-
ally missing, as opposed to geological textbooks that
try to answer the geologist's favorite question: 'How
deep was the water?' The simple answer 'shallow' or
'deep' is no longer sufficient for sequence stratigraphy
and should be replaced by more precise statements on
the water depth within the shallow or deep depositional
settings. A reliable sequence stratigraphy depends
