Environmental Engineering Reference
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the siting of turbines, power lines, and access roads. Some species are sensitive to the
presence of turbines and can be scared away from their breeding grounds (Benner et al.
1993 ; de Lucas et al. 2007 ; Everaert and Kuijken 2007 ; Janss et al. 2001 ; Masden et al.
2010, Percival 2007 ; Sterner et al. 2007 ; Strickland et al. 2011 ; Wiser et al. 2011 ) .
11 According to John Cleland, an international expert on reproductive issues in Africa,
sub-Saharan Africa is “the one remaining region of the world where the population is set to
double or treble in the next 40 years” (UNFPA 2011 ) .
12 In Reykjavik, Iceland, the CO 2 content of thermal groundwater used for district
heating (0.05 milligrams of CO 2 per kilowatt-hour of heat) is lower than that of the cold
groundwater. In China (Beijing, Tianjin, and Xianyang) it is less than 1 gram of CO 2 per
kilowatt-hour of heat (Goldstein et al. 2011 ) .
13 It should be noted, however, that these technologies are expensive and are not used in
all countries. Most of the new coal-fired power stations built in the last twenty years have
been in emerging economies such as India and China, where environmental standards are
lower and oversight less strict than in the wealthier Western countries. For similar reasons,
pollution from vehicle fumes tends to be higher in these countries.
14 Suggested sites include depleted oil and gas fields and salt mines. Initially, there
were also suggestions that carbon dioxide could be pumped into the deep oceans, but this
idea was abandoned when it became clear that this would increase the problem of ocean
acidification.
15 According to the IEA, the LCOE is defined as “the ratio of total lifetime expenses
versus total expected outputs, expressed in terms of the present value equivalent” ( 2005 ,
174). To calculate LCOE we divide the costs of setting up and running an energy facility
(investments, O&M, fuel, and decommissioning costs) by its lifetime energy output. LCOE
does not take into account subsidies and incentives. LCOE calculations also vary from one
site to another, depending on fuel prices, resource availability, capacity factors, interest
rates on investment, and O&M costs.
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