Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
Table 4.5
Well-to-wheel carbon efficiency of several eco-friendly vehicle models
Technology
Model
Energy source
η
CO
2
W
2
W
2
W
CO
2
ICE
Toyota Camry
Petrol
0.292
1.09
0.268
Honda Civic
Petrol
0.292
1.86
0.157
HEV
Toyota Prius
Petrol
0.292
2.03
0.144
PHEV
Chevy Volt
Coal
0.870
1.28
0.680
Chevy Volt
Natural gas
0.450
1.68
0.268
BEV
Tesla Roadster
Coal
0.870
1.95
0.446
Tesla Roadster
Natural gas
0.450
2.56
0.176
Nissan Leaf
Coal
0.870
2.13
0.408
Nissan Leaf
Natural gas
0.450
2.80
0.161
BMW Mini E
Coal
0.870
2.28
0.382
BMW Mini E
Natural gas
0.450
3.00
0.150
petrol with either coal or natural gas power generation can be estimated; this equation
is presented as:
W
2
W
CO
2
=
η
CO
2
/W
2
W
(4.42)
where
η
CO
2
is the carbon content of the fuel used measured in kg/kWh
W
2
W
CO
2
is the carbon emitted per vehicle model measured in kg/km
As the data from Table 4.5 shows, the carbon emissions from PHEVs still need
to improve further because if the electricity fuel mix is based on fossil fuels the
environmental gains of PHEVs will be detrimental or nill at best. In other words,
a shift to low carbon generation is needed. Furthermore, PHEV deployment will
create a 'new' type of load for utilities, while also possibly offering power back
to the grid when necessary. Consequently, it would be practical for power system
engineers to distinguish PHEVs as dispatchable loads with storage features embedded
to electrical distribution networks. Hence, for simplicity purposes in the remainder
of this text, the term PHEV will imply any vehicle technology that can obtain power
from the electric grid.
Some possible consequences electric DNOs might face for having PHEV units
embedded in their infrastructure include [209]:
Modifying daily electric load profiles in commercial and residential areas;
●
Altering both electricity delivery costs and losses;
●
Shortening the life of substations and enhancing protection schemes;
●
Adopting more monitoring of key operating variables,
particularly at low
●
voltages.
The impacts PHEVs have on electrical distribution networks will be closely
related to the driving styles of vehicle users. This is because the amount of petrol
displaced by power from the grid is influenced by various factors, such as energy
demand per recharge (
i.e.
battery status) and total driving distance between recharges
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