Challenges in effectively managing energy resources, infrastructures and conversion technologies - Modelling Distributed Energy Resources in Energy Service Networks - page 6

Some critical issues - most of them capital intensive - which stakeholders need
to address in order to satisfy the needs of future energy service networks include:

Rearranging energy market frameworks towards an approach that provides ease
of access to new participants and greater energy-price transparency [16];

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Developing reliable energy load forecasts to securely meet future trends [17];

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Implement adequate monitoring and control strategies to have in place intelligent
grid management systems that guarantee network robustness [18];

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Adapting to increasing interactions from deployment of intermittent low carbon
generation, flexible loads and ancillary services [19];

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Obeying policies set by authorities to reduce greenhouse gas emissions [20].

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In addition to the above challenges, promising developments are occurring in
the area of embedded technologies which are popularly referred to in the literature
as distributed energy resources (DERs). DERs are modular technologies that can
provide electricity and/or heat capacity near end-users, typically ranging from 1 kW
up to 10 MW [21]. Also, DER systems are robust since they can either be connected
to the local grid or remain off-grid. These devices, within reason, are no longer
subject to strong economies of scale and their deployment in distribution systems is
sensible under certain conditions.
DER selection for a specific application requires careful study to meet the techno-
economical expectations of the project; nevertheless, a broad range of alternatives
are usually at hand with varying degrees of cost, fuel type, capacity and reliabil-
ity [18]. Proper application of DERs at a significant capacity has the potential to
significantly enhance ' where, how and when ' end-users obtain their energy needs;
therefore, DERs could positively impact urban networks in different metrics such as
reliability, emissions, fuel utilisation and low-cost energy provision (if energy tariffs
are higher).
Literature generally disregards DER heat provision technologies, but they should
be considered since this type of load is significant in all sectors of an economy.
Many countries that have decarbonisation targets have established incentives to
install these technologies, such as the UK through the RHI scheme [22]. Some heat
DERs include [23]: solar thermal units, ground and water source heat pumps, solid
biomass furnaces ( e.g. wood chips, pellets and waste) and biomethane combustion
units. Tables 1.3 and 1.4 overview the most common applications of electric power

Table 1.3 Application portfolio of DER technologies

Technology Fuel type Standby Peak shaving CHP

Engine Diesel/bio-diesel/gas X X X

Micro-turbine Gas/bio-gas/syn-gas X X X

Fuel cell Hydrogen/methane X

Solar PV Sun X

Wind power Wind