Geography Reference
In-Depth Information
212
included the seven claimant nations plus the United States, Soviet Union, Belgium, South
Africa, and Japan. The U.S. program included studies of ionospheric physics, aurora, cos-
mic rays, geomagnetism, gravity, seismology, glaciology, meteorology, oceanography,
terrestrial biology, and medical science. Missing from this list was geology.
In late 1956, before the IGY had even begun, CSAGI began a discussion about the
possibility of extending the observations and occupying some of the stations for another
year. The first day brought strong arguments on both sides of the question, but when on
the second day of negotiations the Soviet delegation arrived and declared that all Soviet
stations would remain operational, the recommendation quickly passed for IGY opera-
tions to continue for one more year under the rubric of the International Geophysical
Cooperation program. The National Science Foundation established the U.S. Antarctic
Research Program (USAR P) to coordinate U.S. activities on the continent in January
1958, but it was not until 1960 that Executive Order, Circular A-51 was oYcially approved,
setting forth the policies governing U.S. activities in Antarctica.
During 1959 the United States kept four stations open: South Pole, Hallett, Byrd,
and McMurdo, with McMurdo becoming the base of operations and Little America
shutting down because of the lack of a safe docking platform at the edge of the ice shelf
upon which it was built. With the Soviet Union's intention of staying on the ice, however,
pressure continued for the United States to maintain its stations after 1959, in particular
the one at the South Pole. Sovereignty issues had been tabled during the IGY, but now
the IGY had passed. Indeed, India had been urging the United Nations to consider Ant-
arctica for peaceful purposes and the shared interests of all nations.
On May 2, 1958, in light of the evolving politics and following the course he had en-
dorsed for the IGY, President Eisenhower invited the eleven other nations that had sta-
tions in Antarctica during the IGY to come to Washington to participate in a conference
for the perpetuation of the ideals of cooperation established during the IGY, specifically
along the lines of the Escudero Declaration. By June, representatives of the twelve nations
were meeting on a biweekly basis in a room of the National Academy of Sciences in Wash-
ington. By early 1959 the main elements of the treaty were in place, and on December 1,
1959, it was signed at the Washington Conference. Immediately hailed as a milestone to-
ward world peace, the Antarctic Treaty was then sent back to the respective governments
for ratification.
On June 23, 1961, the last of the signatories endorsed the Antarctic Treaty. All territo-
rial claims were put in abeyance for thirty years; the continent was to be used for peace-
ful purposes only; scientific research was to be the primary activity; there was to be no
military presence except in support of scientific research; each signatory had to maintain
a year-round base; all activity was to be open; information was to be shared. No mention
was made in the treaty about mineral resources. Moreover, steps for other countries to
accede to the treaty were established. The treaty was binding for thirty years and would
continue in force after that period if none of the signatories withdrew.
By the thirtieth anniversary of the Antarctic Treaty in 1991, twenty-six nations held
the status of “consultative party,” and an additional fourteen had acceded to the treaty
and its principles but were not conducting significant scientific research. At that time the
consultative parties passed a far-reaching protocol toward protection of the Antarctic
