Environmental Engineering Reference
In-Depth Information
changes in shipping regulations for large EV lithium ion batteries. Based on these
recommendations, the United Nations expert committee adopted amendments in
1998 to the UN Model Regulations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods and its
associated Manual of Tests and Criteria. The changes permitted the shipment of
large EV lithium ion batteries. Commencing January 2003, the International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO) technical instructions and the International Air
Transport Association (IATA) dangerous goods regulations require testing of lithium
ion cells and batteries prior to being offered for shipment by air internationally. The
new testing requirements are found in UNmanual of tests and criteria, T1-T8, and are
similar in many respects to UL1642 and IEC61960.
In January 2008, the US Department of Transportation (DOT) started its Safe
Travel Initiative that prohibits carrying lithium ion packs in checked baggage.
Specific requirements include:
Any number of spare batteries can be in carry-on baggage, provided they are
protected from shorting and do not exceed 8 g equivalent lithium (~100 Wh).
●
Typical cell phone, notebook computer and laptop batteries meet the 8 g
requirement.
●
Batteries not installed in electronic devices are not permitted in checked bag-
gage. The limit is not more than two spare rechargeable lithium ion batteries
having an equivalent lithium content of
<
25 g (~300 Wh).
●
There will likely be more restrictions placed on lithium ion packs. A PHEV or
BEV pack, for example, contains approximately 170 g equivalent lithium per
1 kWh storage capacity. This is approximately correct since only 50% or less of the
elemental lithium in the cathode is used in reactions.
Example 4:
Show that 8 g equivalent of lithium does indeed correspond to ~100 Wh
battery pack.
Solution:
One can calculate the Ah/g of lithium metal using its atomic mass
(6.939 g/mol) and Faraday's constant or from periodic tables. In any case lithium
contains 3.862 Ah/g of total charge (valence of unity) and assuming a lithium ion
cell chemistry of 3.5 V, typical of lithium-iron-phosphate (LFP), this amounts to
W
Li
¼
q
Li
MU
Li
¼
3
:
862 Ah
=ð Þ
8
ð
g
Þ
3
:
5
ð
V
Þ¼
108Wh
4.4.4 Metal-air batteries
A recent and growing trend is to explore the limits of thermodynamic storage
energy density by primary and rechargeable cell chemistries that require one to
carry around only half the electrochemical couple. The other 'half' being air. Types
of metal-air batteries are zinc-air, aluminium-air and lithium-air to state a few,
with lithium-air being the holy grail of energy storage (Table 4.17).
