Multilevel governance and Coproduction in urban Flood-risk management - Climate Change Adaptation and Development: Transforming Paradigms and Practices - page 123

agencies (Manor 2011; Peters 2008; Vedeld 2003). Moreover, financial and other
resources are considered particularly critical for local governance in low-income
countries like Tanzania. Socio-technical and ecological factors relate to the ecosystem
context, social and demographic conditions (including urbanization trends and
change in settlement patterns), and urban landscapes or morphologies.
dar es salaam - the case study
Brief background
Dar es Salaam, the largest city in Tanzania and its main economic centre, has
a population of close to 4 million people and an annual growth rate of about
4.4 per cent - a doubling in less than ten years. The city has experienced a
series of floods arising from smaller rivers and lack of drainage as well as coastal
flooding in recent years (Ardhi 2011). Mean annual rainfall is about 1100 mm,
in two rainy seasons, frequently through heavy cloudbursts. CLUVA's analysis
of extreme rainfall events, based on climate data projected up to 2050, indicates
an increase in the frequency of extreme events, but a reduction in intensity and
a limited increase in rainfall. Flood impacts are projected to increase, but this
is mainly due to the growing concentrations of people in flood-prone areas
(CLUVA 2014). The city has experienced various floods (as well as droughts)
over the past three decades; and smaller or larger floods have become annual
events since the turn of the millennium. In 2011, flash floods after heavy rains
killed over 40 people and displaced thousands, destroying houses and assets
across the city.
Like many large cities in sub-Saharan Africa, Dar es Salaam is faced with
rapid population growth and continuous market-led settlement of people in
risk-exposed and underserviced areas, as exemplified by the two local case
studies of Suna and Bonde la Mpunga. The failure of the urban authorities to
meet the basic service needs of the population across the city can be seen from
the fact that only 11 per cent have access to sewerage, 25 per cent to piped water,
and more than 90 per cent continue to rely on pit latrines and informal systems
of sewerage (Vedeld et al. 2012). Key governance problems for the city relate to
the lack of provisioning for strategic city planning and land management, and
the lack of land-use regulation and enforcement (Vedasto and Mrema 2013;
Ardhi 2011; UN-Habitat 2010 and 2009). Moreover, the long-term degradation
of green environment, combined with weak storm-water management, lack of
sewerage systems and solid waste management, have gradually exacerbated the
impacts of flooding in low-lying areas with limited natural or formal drainage.
Coastal flooding and erosion is a further key issue (John et al. 2012; Mng'ong'o
2005). It is in the context of these different climate-change risks, together
with the multiple challenges of providing services and development to a rising
population, that the urban authorities have started to respond to climate-change
adaptation and to flood risks more systematically.