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stand relates to discussions about transitional adaptation and transformation
(Pelling 2011). Cities as systems need to be assessed with regard to their
resilience, capacity to act or adapt, and transformation. The integration of
adaptation into government and governance across sectors, levels and scales is
critical to long-term resilience (Bulkeley 2013; Satterthwaite and Dodman 2013;
Pelling 2011). A key academic puzzle, however, relates to how such change can
come about, whether through collaboration and coproduction and constructive
public management of conflicts and differences, or through political resistance
and action (Welsh 2013).
We argue that the focus on resilience is useful for understanding most urban
contexts confronted with external risks. In the climate literature, 'resilience' has
been explained as 'capacities to withstand or recover from all direct and indirect
impacts of climate change' (Satterthwaite and Dodman 2013:292; Pelling 2011).
It is fruitful to employ a broad and 'transformative' definition of resilience that
opens up for 'improvements of basic structures and functions' (cf. IPCC 2012).
From an adaptation perspective, we will then need to understand what and
who must become more resilient within the city at different levels and scales.
According to Satterthwaite and Dodman (2013), first, individuals and citizen
groups and their assets need to become resilient. Second, their resilience requires
support from resilient systems: from sector services, built and natural systems,
and local institutions. Third, the arrangements of government and multilevel
governance in urban areas need to be flexible, responsive and properly resourced
with both financial and technical capacities, to ensure that these systems operate
in resilient and sustainable ways. And finally, the politico-administrative system
needs to be genuinely responsive to the priorities and needs of all residents.
There exist a wide range of complementary adaptation and disaster-risk
management approaches that can enhance resilience and reduce exposure
and vulnerability to (flood) risks from climate extremes and disasters. Such
approaches are in part overlapping. The distinction between the two concepts or
policy fields is not made clear in the literature (IPCC 2012). Adaptive measures
to enhance resilience to flood risks (before, during or after an extreme climate
event) might involve reducing vulnerability; preparation, response and recovery;
transfer or sharing risk; reducing exposure; and transformation (IPCC 2012;
Satterthwaite et al. 2010; Adger et al. 2009). By integration of adaptation and climate-
risk management into policy and governance, in this study we look for highly
specific measures, decisions or actions taken within multilevel governance and
policy to enhance a more resilient city at municipal and community levels - inspired
by key elements of the Ten Essentials for Making Cities Resilient (UNISDR
2014), namely:
• a city climate-action strategy in place (enabling a broad approach across
sectors)
• organizational homes with resources that function in responsive manners
(e.g. to enhance coproduction)
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