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roots in cognitive information processing
models and mental models research.
Variation strategy (e.g., Marton & Pang,
2006; Pang & Marton, 2005)-show stu-
dents variations in a scenario along one
dimension while keeping other aspects
invariant. This approach has roots in
phenomenology.
Multiple representations (e.g., Kozma et
al., 1996; Schnotz & Bannert, 2003)-pro-
vide multiple linked representations of
phenomena, such as graphs and pictorial
and textual representations. This strategy
has roots in multimedia learning theory
and human-computer interaction (HCI)
research.
Embodied metaphors and gestures (e.g.,
Glenberg et al., 2004; Núñez, Edwards,
& Matos, 1999; Goldin-Meadow, 2005)-
Essentially use one's own body and actions
as an analogy to or enactment of the tar-
get domain. The aforementioned enactive
modeling strategy falls in this category, as
well. These approaches have roots in em-
bodied cognition (Gibbs, 2006).
ing and noticing of critical features in electrical
circuit problems.
online challenge-Based community
One other larger challenge for our research is ad-
dressing student learning of electricity concepts at
the K-12 level. Currently most high schools only
spend a week or two on electrical circuits over
the course of four years of instruction. Curricula
exists for more in depth learning about digital
and analog electrical circuits (such as Project
Lead the Way), yet it also may have limitations.
One is that the curricula is very expensive and
not openly available to the public. Only schools
in richer school districts may adopt specialized
technology education courses on electrical circuits.
Also, this leaves out not only poorer schools, but
the ever increasing number of online virtual high
schools. More and more high school students in the
United States and elsewhere are beginning to take
more, if not all, of their courses online. Existing
technology education curricula are designed for
face to face courses only, and use expensive and
dangerous equipment that could not be utilized
by students on their own from home.
We have proposed the creation of an online/
blended learning community for students learn-
ing science, technology, engineering and math
(STEM) concepts known as BOOSTEM. Students
can use animated simulations such as our own,
and also collaborate and compete with one another
on engineering and design projects and problems.
Similar online portals have been developed for
science education, including the ITSI project at
the Concord Consortium and the EU-funded SCY
project (Science Created by You).
This plethora of independently-derived in-
structional approaches raises numerous research
questions, however. For not only do each of these
techniques have distinct theoretical roots, they also
have specific differences in how they have been
applied to instruction. Moreover only the analo-
gies technique has been sufficiently researched
in domain areas involving misconceptions that
are resistant to traditional instruction, including
electrical circuits (e.g., Gutwill, Fredericksen,
& White, 1999). The limitations of the analogy
strategy have been well identified (e.g., limitations
of using the water analogy to electrical circuits,
Gentner & Gentner, 1983).
We will be conducting future meta-analyses
and pilot studies that explore how presenting cir-
cuit simulation problems in pairs rather than one
at a time may better facilitate student understand-
concLuSIon
This chapter has discussed initial tests of two
software tools for facilitating student understand-
ing of electrical circuit behavior: the Inductor
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