Civil Engineering Reference
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5.2.5 Sociologically Formed System Approaches
Willke (2000) differentiates between several development stages of the social system theory. The struc-
tural-functional system theory represents the first fundamental delineation of a sociological system
theory. Structures consist of elements that are in some way related to one another. On the one hand,
structures limit the options. On the other hand, they ensure a certain assurance that expectations are
fulfilled. It is not only the term of structure, but also the term of function that is of great importance
to the structural-functional system theory. For example, the political system has the function to
achieve collectively binding decisions. The structural-functional system theory is characterized by the
fact that the term of structure is paramount compared to the term of function. The initial point is the
assumption that all social systems necessarily show certain structures. The research-leading question
is: which functional achievements have to be performed by the system, so that this system remains
with its given structures. Structures are accepted to a large extent as given. How these develop
remains unconsidered in the theory.
The system-functional approach — as a second development stage of the theory of social systems —
regards social systems as complex, adaptive, and goal-seeking entities. Social systems are characterized by
the fact that they are able to change or elaborate their structure to modified environmental conditions, in
order to ensure their survival or viability. “We might generally say that the system has 'mapped' parts of
the environmental variety and constraints into its organization as structure and
or 'information' ”
(Buckley, 1968). The functional theory does not circumscribe its view to the internal state of the
system — unlike, for example, the classic organization theory, which only investigates the organization
itself and the jurisprudence, which only deals with legal norms. It incorporates the environment as far
as it is relevant for the stabilization of the system (Luhmann, 1971). The progress of the theory formation
lies in the fact that structures are regarded as variables. The research question is: which structural adjust-
ments must social systems be able to accomplish under certain changing environmental conditions, in
order to be able to fulfill their substantial system functions.
The relationship of system and environment takes center stage of the functional-structural approach—
as the third development stage of social systems theory. The environment is no longer regarded as a
causing factor, but as a constituting factor for the formation of a system. The sense of the system for-
mation is observed by the fact that excluded areas are created. This exclusion of areas, the creation of
an environment, makes it possible for humans with their limited absorption capacity to seize and
process complexity. In Luhmann's opinion there is one conclusion about the form of how a system
solves its problems: with the help of structure formation (Luhmann, 1971). Structure formation leads
to behavior expectations, referring to operation results. Systems form a regulator between incidental
and processable complexity. The progress of the theory formation is to be seen in the fact that the emer-
gence of certain characteristics of social systems is no longer attributed to individual internal or external
conditions. Social systems are, according to the theory, reasonable constituted units, which have to solve
the problem of processing complexity. The solution of this problem is regarded as a condition for reach-
ing all of the other goals of a system.
It is emphasized in a further development step of the sociological system theory that the fixing of the
boundaries between system and environment is an achievement, which is performed by the social system
itself. The boundary is a social construction. The process of fixing the boundaries consists in establishing
a difference between system and environment. In doing so, certain action patterns are created. These
patterns make it possible to order the variety of possibilities, that is, processing and reducing the com-
plexity. For the theory of self-referential systems a radical reorientation is suggested (Luhmann, 1984). It
considers the theory of the autopoiesis originating from biology (Maturana, 1985). “Autopoieseis” means
“self-creating” (griech.: auto
/
make, bring out). If the operations of a system only consist
of producing the elements and relations that the system itself is made up of, then the system is an autop-
oietic one. That means it is a system whose goal is nothing else than itself (Krieger, 1996). The substantial
idea of the theory is that a system does not only produce its structures itself, but also the elements of
which it consists. Similar to cell biology, elements are understood as temporal operations, which
self; poiein
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