Upper Extremity Analysis of the Wrist - Fundamentals and Assessment Tools for Occupational Ergonomics - page 865

values greater than 1.0 indicating risk for injury (Niebel and Freivalds, 2003). However, it has not been
validated or checked for reliability.
45.5 Conclusions
A variety of models and analysis tools have been presented for the hand and wrist. For all these, the main
risk factors for WRMSDs are high external forces and awkward wrist postures that produce high tendon
forces. In addition, high velocities and accelerations, resulting from frequent rapid movements, can
further increase the risk for injury.
References
An, K.W., Chao, E.Y., Cooney, W.P., and Linscheid, R.L. (1979). Normative model of human hand for
biomechanical analysis. Journal of Biomechanics, 12:775-788.
An, K.N., Hui, F.C., Morrey, B.F., Linscheid, R.L., and Chao, E.Y.S. (1981). Muscle across the elbow joint:
a biomechanical analysis. Journal of Biomechanics, 14:659-669.
An, K.N., Ueba, Y., Chao, E.Y., Cooney, W.P., and Linscheid, R.L. (1983). Tendon excursion and moment
arm of index finger muscles. Journal of Biomechanics, 16:419-425.
An K.N., Chao E.Y., Cooney, W.P., and Linscheid R.L. (1985). Forces in the normal and abnormal hand.
Journal of Orthopedic Research, 3:202-211.
An, K.N., Horii, E., and Ryu, J. (1991). Muscle function. In An, K.N., Berger, R.A. and Cooney, W.P.
(Eds.), Biomechanics of the Wrist Joint, New York: Springer Verlag, pp. 157-169.
Armstrong, T.J. (1976). Circulatory and Local Muscle Responses to Static Manual Work. Ph.D. Disser-
tation, Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan.
Armstrong, T.J. and Chaffin, D.B. (1978). An investigation of the relationship between displacements of
the finger and wrist joints and the extrinsic finger flexor tendons. Journal of Biomechanics,
11:119-128.
Armstrong, T.J. and Chaffin, D.B. (1979). Some biomechanical aspects of the carpal tunnel. Journal of
Biomechanics, 12:567-570.
Batmanabane, M. and Malathi, S. (1985). Movements at the carpometacarpal and metacarpophalangeal
joints of the hand and their effect on the dimensions of the articular ends of the metacarpal bones.
Anatomical Record, 213:102-110.
Brand, P.W. and Hollister, A. (1993). Clinical Mechanics of the Hand, 2nd ed. St. Louis, MO: Mosby Year
Book, Inc.
Brand, P.W., Beach, R.B., and Thompson, D.E. (1981). Relative tension and potential excursion of
muscles in the forearm and hand. Journal of Hand Surgery, 6:209-218.
Bright, D.S. and Urbaniak, J.S. (1976). Direct measurements of flexor tendon tension during active and
passive digit motion and its application to flexor tendon surgery. Transactions of the 22nd Annual
Orthopedic Research Society, 240.
Cailliet, R. (1994). Hand Pain and Impairment. 3rd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Davis.
Chaffin, D.B., Andersson, G.B.J., and Martin, B.J. (1999). Occupational Biomechanics, 3rd ed., New York:
John Wiley & Sons.
Chao, E.Y.S. and An, K.N. (1978a). Determination of internal forces in human hand. Journal of Engin-
eering Mechanics Division ASCE, 104:255-272.
Chao, E.Y.S. and An, K.N. (1978b). Graphical interpretation of the solution to the redundant problem in
biomechanics. Journal of Biomechanics, 11:159-167.
Chao, E.Y.S., Opgrande, J.D., and Axmear, F.E. (1976). Three-dimensional force analysis of finger joints
in selected isometric hand functions. Journal of Biomechanics, 9:387-396.
Davidoff, N.A. (1990). The Development of a Graphic Model of a Human Hand, MS Thesis, University
Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University.