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procedural knowledge of similar components, and specifying the conditions that best facilitate
progression from one knowledge state to another. CTA techniques are used for a number of different pur-
poses, and CTA outputs are used, among other things, to inform the design of procedures and processes,
the design of new technology and systems, allocation of functions, the development of training pro-
cedures and interventions, and the evaluation of individual and team performance within complex
systems.
Flanagan (1954) first probed the decisions and actions made by pilots in near accidents using the criti-
cal incident technique (CIT). However, the term “cognitive task analysis” did not appear until the early
1980s when it began to be used in research texts. According to Hollnagel (2003), the termwas first used in
1981 to describe approaches to the understanding of the cognitive activities required of man-machine
systems. Since then, the focus on the cognitive processes employed by system operators has increased,
and CTA applications are now on the increase, particularly in complex, dynamic environments such
as those seen in the nuclear power, defence, and emergency services domains. Various CTA techniques
have been subject to widespread use over the past two decades, with applications in a number of
domains, such as fire fighting (Militello and Hutton, 2000), aviation (O'Hare et al., 2000), emergency
services (O'Hare et al., 2000), command and control (Chin et al., 1999), military operations (Klein,
2000), naval maintenance (Schaafstal and Schraagen, 2000), and even white-water rafting (O'Hare
et al., 2000).
There are a plethora of CTA approaches available to the HF practitioner. The Cognitive Task
Analysis Resource Website (www.ctaresource.com) lists over 100 CTA-related techniques designed
to evaluate and describe the cognitive aspects of task performance. Roth et al. (2002) suggest that
there are three different approaches to CTA. The first approach involves analyzing the domain in
question in terms of goals and functions, in order to determine the cognitive demands imposed
by the tasks performed. The second approach involves the use of empirical techniques, such as obser-
vation and interview techniques, in order to determine how the users perform the tasks under analy-
sis, allowing a specification of the knowledge requirements and strategies involved. The third and
more recent approach involves developing computer models that can be used to simulate the cogni-
tive activities required during the task under analysis. Traditional CTA approaches use a combination
of traditional knowledge elicitation methods such as observation, semistructured and structured inter-
views, and questionnaires in order to retrospectively elicit data regarding the mental processes used by
system operators during task performance. For example, the cognitively orientated task analysis
(COTA) framework is a collection of procedures, including verbal protocol analysis and interviews,
that are used to describe the expertise involved during task performance (DuBois and Shalin,
2000). The critical decision method (CDM) (Klein et al., 1989) uses direct observation and semistruc-
tured interviews in order to analyze the cognitive processes underlying decision-making in complex
environments. The applied cognitive task analysis (ACTA) approach (Militello and Hutton, 2000) uses
sets of specific cognitive probes designed to elicit information regarding the cognitive processes
employed during task performance. Finally, a more recent theme within CTA is the development
of software packages that are designed to automate large portions of the typically lengthy CTA
process and also to simulate the cognitive activities required during task performance. Software
techniques such as the man-machine integration design and analysis system (MIDAS) attempt to
simulate the cognitive processes required during task performance. There are a number of CTA
software packages available, such as MIDAS, MicroSaint, the work domain analysis workbench
(WDAW), the cognitive activity analysis toolset (CAATS), and the decompose, network, and assess
(DNA) tool.
36.2 Cognitive Task Analysis of Teams
An increased use of teams in complex systems has resulted in the emergence of TCTA applications. A
number of CTA techniques have been developed specifically to analyze the cognitive processes used
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